a. is used when a person claims something is true simply because it cannot be disproved, or that something is fictitious because it cannot be proven to be true.
b. used when a person appeals to the opinions of an expert in a field rather than doing their own research. It is assumed that their conclusions are true based solely on their reputation. It is also used when a person appeals to the authority of a popular, well-liked person, who is respected by the audience, but the person has no real authority on the matter.
c. is used when a person justifies a course of action because “everyone else is doing it.” This argument is often used when peer pressure (fear of rejection or promise of affection) causes a person to defend their action or inaction.
d. literally means “To the Man.” This fallacy seeks to discredit a person’s argument by attacking their personal character, origin, associations, etc., rather than their ideas. It is often used when one person realizes that he cannot defend his beliefs, so he attempts to win an argument in a popular way through personal or humorous attacks.
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