a. occurs when an argument is formulated on the basis of a comparison of unrelated things. Sometimes that approach is appropriate. However, there are times when an argument is given but its comparison is not legitimate.
b. is used when a person claims something is true simply because it cannot be disproved, or that something is fictitious because it cannot be proven to be true.
c. is used when a person justifies a course of action because “everyone else is doing it.” This argument is often used when peer pressure (fear of rejection or promise of affection) causes a person to defend their action or inaction.
d. This argument is sometimes referred to as “circular reasoning.” It occurs in an argument when a person assumes that their conclusion is true by the premise itself, or that the conclusion is supported by itself, or by simply restating the conclusion in a different way.
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