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Review of the Literature on Autism
Introduction
Autism is a widely studied condition that presently has no known cure. Scholars have defined autism as a development disorder that presents itself in the first three years of age. Autism is considered a neurodevelopmental disorder that disrupts the development of the person socially; hinders verbal and nonverbal communication development as well as disrupting behavior. People with autism are faced by many challenges in life, and those around them too have the liability of understanding and trying to make them happy. It is important that people appreciate what autism is, its characteristics, how it can be treated, techniques of including autistic individuals in daily societal activities through special education and methods of accommodation. More so, it is important for handlers to understand the condition within an early age for better interventions. Autism is characterized by lack of communicating skills, language difficulty, lack of socialization and unusual interests and behaviors. Affected individuals require special education towards handling professional interests and talents like arts, science and mathematics.
Recent research indicates that the autism disorder is quite common and therefore it only requires intervention through an increment of its awareness. Research has indicated that the condition has notably increased within the populace over the past decade and children faced with autism need interventions through educational approaches to help them cope with various life aspects. The documentation has highlighted the effects of autism on individuals such as lack of effective contact with people and the environment, and socializing difficulties due to inadequate social development.
Characteristics
Autism is a neurodevelopment disorder that inhibits social development by a visible presentation in the first three years of life as cited by various literatures. According to Marwick, Aline-Wendy and MacKay (2005), autism has several distinct characteristics the most prominent being an inadequate form of social development noted during interactions with peers or people of the same age. In such instances, it has been noted that the autistic people remain withdrawn from their peers. Due to this, autistic individuals are not in position to make and maintain friends. More so, they suffer from lack of compassion towards others and thereby failing to adapt their personality in line with the social environment. Autistic people face the difficulty of establishing social relationships with others and prefer isolation since they largely do not know how to handle, establish and maintain relationships (Marwick, Aline-Wendy, & MacKay 2005).
The second characteristic concerns difficulties of communication, caused by the fact that autistic individuals do not develop communication skills, both verbally and nonverbally. Nonverbal communicating skills include function such as maintaining eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, and facial responses that pose great difficulties to autistic individuals. Language development is also difficult; the affected hardly talk and find it tasking in initiating conversations, contributing to discussions or negotiating, and comprehending what other individuals offer in communication instance. Additionally, they also encounter difficulties in interpreting figures of speech as well as symbolic language such as metaphors, irony and sarcasm (Marwick, Aline-Wendy, & MacKay 2005).
A third characteristic of autism is difficulties in behavior and thought patterns where affected individuals may have little imaginative skills resulting into restrictions and repetition of certain stereotypes and behaviors. For autistic individuals, their imagination often lacks the ability to relay the same towards collective uses and functional play. In other words, their interests do not resemble others’ interests or the usual cultural interests; they are always preoccupied by routine and structure (Marwick, Aline-Wendy, & MacKay 2005). Marwick, Aline-Wendy and MacKay (2005) have utilized recently conducted researches in the preparation of the given ideas and conclusions concerning autism.
Eligibility
To help autistic children, there is a strong need for practical interventions and recognizing children with the condition towards receiving required educational services. This has led to the need for early diagnosis measures in autism to ensure proper handling within a manageable form. Eligibility is concerned with identifying characteristics related to autism and determining how adversely they may affect an individual in terms of communication, social interactions and education. To determine the eligibility of an individual, literature suggests that one should utilize professionals in assessing the magnitude of the development disability. For a child to qualify as an autistic, he or she has to evidence development disabilities that adversely hinder verbal and nonverbal communication, interactions with the society, and difficulty in sensory responses that are evident by three years of age. Moreover, the child should evidence instances that these conditions affect his or her education capabilities clearly from other influences such as emotional disturbances.
RTI Connection
RTI connection involves examining the problem and its causes, designing measures and the kind of interventions required towards managing the condition as well as the execution needs. Progress monitoring follows the implementation phase while evaluation is ranked last in a bid to assess the interventions effectiveness. Response to intervention (RTI) in autism aims at diagnosing whether the child is autistic, outlining the best measures of intervention, and monitoring the reaction of the child’s to the given intervention.
Best Teaching Practices
According to Marwick, Aline-Wendy and MacKay (2005), the best approach to teaching children with autism comprises of a well-structured framework. Research has revealed that children with autism are able to benefit more from a structured teaching approach that provides a basis for a series of interventions, through enhanced social interactions and communication. Additionally, progress is best achieved when the intervention is incorporated early enough after the condition has been identified since it has been proved that early interventions accord a big impact in enhancing social interactions and communication skills. Such approaches include a structured educational setting based on close monitoring from parents and families alongside professionals with a structured continuous intervention model (Marwick, Aline-Wendy & MacKay, 2005). In this method, visual and nonverbal equipment are used to aid the individuals in planning, transitioning and organizing skills in various activities.
The second method is referred to as the behavioral approach based on skinner’s theory of learning as a form of development process that suggests reinforcing behavior through positive and negative influences. This approach seeks to alter the development environment by changing it to fit autistic individuals by considering that the fact that they do not conduct learning under normal environments like other children. The development interactive approach is the third method that suggests various motivations for an individual to engage in social interactions and the setting required for usual development. It is further targeted to specific ways that encourage certain healthy responses. The last practice is termed as the socio-constructive/cognition approach as discussed by Marwick, Aline-Wendy and MacKay (2005). The approach suggests that in the same way that cognitive behavior therapy and stories aid children in developing ideas and social principles to bring out meaning, additional supporting programs can be used as inclusive supports for children with autism. The remaining two approaches namely, sensory and motor therapy and biomedical approaches are less applied in teaching practices due to intricacy aspects as well as their nature as being time-intensive techniques.
Application in the General Education Classroom
Mixed results have forwarded by researchers with regard to autistic students in general classrooms sites. One example is that children with disabilities, inclusive of autism disorders, tend to be more popular than normal students are (Harrower, & Dunlap, 2001). A research carried out by Handlemann, Harris, Gordon, Bass and Kristoff gave no results as to the relationship between children belonging to three distinct learning groups within the classroom. The groupings comprised of children with autism in a segregated class, another group with autism in an inclusive class and another group of developing students in an inclusive class (Harrower, & Dunlap, 2001). However, these results have been used by many researchers to argue that autistic children can be included in a general class with no negative effects.
Harrower and Dunlap (2001) have given some solutions that can be incorporated in the learning system in order to help autistic students cope with a general setting. Antecedent procedures are used to reduce and prevent the challenging behavior experienced in general classes. Picture scheduling, prompt delivery and priming are the most popular antecedent procedures towards accommodating students in normal classes. Delayed contingencies have been found to help the students in improving appropriate behavior in general classrooms. For example, Dunlap and Johnson found that through applying unpredictable supervision on autistic children, on-task behavior offers superior results in settings where the learners were not supervised than that incorporating supervision practices. Other strategies that Harrower and Dunlap suggested include self-management strategies, peer-mediated interventions, and multicomponent interventions. Peer mediated interventions comprise of peer tutoring, utilizing peer support and cooperative learning.
Methods of Instruction
Rachel Evans (2008) a specialist in autism clarifies that autistic children are more visual than audio in terms of learning. It is important to include visual props as permanent components of the learning environment. Both visual and audio incentives should be controlled because most autistic children are largely stimulated by the least of things. With most autistic students struggling with communication skills, Evans feels that it is important for instructors to include argumentative communication systems. These acts as great aids within the communication requirement and therefore social skills should be best taught directly. This means that social skills need to be taught like the any other academic topic with instruction, if not literacy, being placed within the highest of all learning priorities.
Accommodation
Beech from the Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services (2010) feels that each autistic student should be handled in an individual manner aligning to the identified individual needs. As much as most autistic children have similar characteristics, some factors differ in terms of individuality. For example, some autistic learners are more reluctant to change than others are. It is therefore important that the institution adopt strategies to accommodate individual factors within the students. Accommodation may be achieved as group settings, or just as individuals. It is also important to note that autistic students are not quite the same as other students even though they maybe present in an inclusive class. Assuming their special needs would only act as a constraint towards effectual learning.
Beech explains that changing the classroom setting by making special arrangements such as putting extra hours on the students and orienting the other students on how to behave towards autistic learners are healthy accommodating approaches. It is not wise to treat such individuals differently even though are known to be different. This is because discriminative handling approaches tend to push the affected individuals away rather than draw them closer to the targeted achievement. A high involvement of parents and guardians is also important in preparing such students towards various accommodations so that they do not experience immense changes between home and school settings.
Modifications
Several modifications have been adopted in educational programs for autistic learners. These modifications comprise of revised schools curriculums for superior learning environments. Besides having revised instructional strategies, learning environments for autistic students still mandate further modifications to suit the learners’ special needs. Students with autism learn better in a structured environment. This simply means that the environment should comprise a structural arrangement in terms of furniture and learning materials arranged in specific manner towards accommodating the students into the most comfortable style of learning. The modifications should also ensure that learning distractions for the autistic students are addressed. For instance, it is recommended that autistic children in a class should be offered preferential seating arrangements and independent working areas.
Other ways requiring modifications include the learning environments in terms of organized working systems. This refers to the fact that a room or an immediate environment around an autistic child should be marked thoroughly to aid with the identification of various objects. For instance, it is recommended that an instructor should use marked or labeled containers while dealing with autistic children due to the visual aspects. The container approach may also be used in the organization of the learners’ tasks. Notebooks may also be employed to organize the students’ day schedules along with written task directions as an adaptation approach within the learning environment. These alterations are very effectual in improving the learners’ independence in various life activities.
Online Resources for Teachers/Parents
Today, autism has become a major issue in the media and press. While watching news or other television programs, it is highly likely that one will come across the issue of autism. Due to this, many people have termed the condition as an epidemic and therefore, various societal members have accorded preeminence to the disorder in terms of handling. Scientists across the world have also adopted a similar approach, terming the condition as one of their major and most important tasks towards offering a superior understanding on the same to parents struggling with the identification of better ways towards helping their children. Consequently, several resources for helping and training parents and teachers in effectual handling practices have been introduced in online websites. These resources are aimed at helping the parents and teachers in their quest to give the autistic children a better life.
These resources are structured as online pages with lists and links to other websites that give information on different methods of helping autistic children. The internet also gives a broad capacity for parents and teachers to acquire educational resources for their autistic children. The internet also contains a vast number of features but that are utilized most effectively by special education children as a communication channel. Learners also use resources found in cyberspace like emails and social networking sites to communicate with their tutors whereas the tutors also use the same channels to interact with parents.
The internet also incorporates a lot of interactivity in virtual classrooms through generating direct and instant personalized responses thereby making learning more interesting. The sites also create useful inputs for autistic students. By using these resources, special education students engage in activities like reading and exploring functions since they receive immediate feedback. The responses then help them in improving crucial skills in subjects like math. Art and other activities have oral provisions in special websites for autistic children. Assessments can also be generated online for students towards measuring individual learning capabilities. As several learners interact in the special websites, the sites can be fixed to collect data on their responses and then use the same to track an individual’s development over time. Parents and tutors are usually notified via the website on the progress of their child.
Advocacy Organizations
The journal of Health Advocacy Organizations and Evidence-based Medicine provides an overview of diverse groups that aim in averting the autism disorder. These groups attempt to accord investigations on the causes of autism in a bid to try handling health care costs, reform the health care systems and provide support to patients. Advocacy organizations are crucial in an independent society because they help in promoting public health concerns of autism patients. Some advocacy organizations are non-profit in nature and aim at organizing campaigns for eliminating discriminatory laws thus improving life chances in autism individuals. Other advocacy organizations work towards advancing civil rights of autistic individuals.
Health organizations are termed as advocacy organizations by targeting individuals affected with autism disorders and offering effectual communication about their main concerns to regulators, lawmakers and private and public sponsors. Their initiatives stress on the needs that may arise from the autistic populace although some of the health advocacy organizations are committed to treatment interventions for the autism disorder. In addition, decisions are shared and used for evidence-based medicine (EBM) in order to determine the best support programs for autism patients. Some support groups such as the National Alliance on Mental Illness and Mental Health America oppose the use of EBM in order to limit free access to testing and treatment options. This is because testing and treatment options do not provide better outcomes to individuals with the autism disorder.
Rothman (2011) points out that some treatment medicines cause harm while others works better. Thus, EBM critics point out that there is no evidence that indicates the benefits of medicine in handling autism. Other advocacy organizations such as the Autistic Self-Advocacy Network (ASAN) and Disability Advocacy Organization (DAO) seek to institute human rights for autism individuals. For instance, ASAN seeks to ensure that autism advocacy goals have been achieved through ensuring that autism individuals enjoy equal rights like any other citizens. ASAN also provides support services to autism individuals as well as educating communities on ways of improving public awareness concerning the autism disorder.
Autism affects both an individual as well as the concerned families. Most parents with autism children are prone to stress development and thereby creating poor relationships in the family. The Families and Advocates Partnership for Education (FAPE) supports organizations that aim at improving educational results of children with autism disabilities. FAPE links professional educators, families of children with autism disabilities and advocators in a partnership for better goals attainment and supportive psychological needs. Moreover, FAPE also emphasizes on educational programs that reach parents, policymakers and professional educators in order to encourage them in working towards supporting autism individuals.
Research Review Highlights
Various researches on autism with topics ranging from its causes, diagnosis, treatment, and educating autistic have been conducted. Aline-Wendy and MacKay (2005), working in the National Center for Autism in Scotland carried out a review on the topic of autism that was meant to provide a background for investigating currents provisions for autistic children. Their review included a background on autism and information concerning the different approaches used in educating autistic individuals, including international studies.
The reviews provided a background on the topic especially on policy documentation and assessment reports. Additionally, an evaluation on the effectiveness of intervention approaches is also provided. Also illustrated is the importance of special education in the incorporation of superior learning practices. The review focuses on the impact of the condition such as verbal and nonverbal communicating difficulties, sensory impairments, among other mentioned difficulties. In the second section, the review provides a systematic approach to the given reviews, according attention to the application features in terms of personal or interpersonal focus. The review provides a good up to date knowledge for all people seeking to understand autism.
Other investigations concerning other topics such as instruction techniques that best fit children with autism have been notable in identifying benefits of visual instructions rather than verbal. Beech has highlighted this in his article following several studies by the Bureau of Exceptional and Student Services. Another topic that has been addressed concerns modifications in terms of curriculum, materials and other needs that special students require for effective learning. Online sites also provide a variety of resources on the autism condition. Note that, online sources also accommodate results from research institutions as a way of enhancing the allocation function. Additionally, the online approach has been highly employed due to lessened cost factors.
In Rothman Sheila’s article, she used the evidence-based medicine (EBM) methodology towards evaluating the morality of decisions made in assessing the treatment risks and benefits of autism disorder. Evidences in this methodology range from meta-analyses to systematic reviews. The EBM methodology was developed by American Medical Association in order to evaluate and recognize aspects of health care provisions to autism individuals. Individual factors such as quality and life value judgments were appraised using the same methodology. EBM seeks to simplify medical practices that are the standard subject matter of scientific methods. Scientific evidence methods are therefore used to predict medical treatment results as a desirable factor in health issues.
Conclusion
Autism has been recognized as a major issue in the society and awareness towards the same has increased with many organizations and scientists taking more studies on the condition. Psychologists are also presently working towards the same as they search for the best way of providing autistic people with a normal life despite their various difficulties in life. Various researches have been conducted and many results have been provided concerning ways of educating autistic people inclusively in normal classes as well as in special classes. After writing this review, it is evident that through informing and educating all people about autism and the need for diagnosing it as early as possible, help can be given to affected children as early as possible in order to overcome common difficulties before a critical level is noted.
References
Beech, M., (2010). Assisting Student with Disabilities. Bureau of Exceptional and Student Services.
Evans R., (2008). Autism and Instruction Methods That Work Best in School. Retrieved from
Harrower, J. K & Dunlap, G., (2001). Including Children with Autism in General Education Classrooms: A Review of Effective Statrategies. Behavior Modification, 25(5), 762-784.
Marwick, H., Aline-Wendy, D. & MacKay, T. (2005). National Centre for Autism Studies
Literature Review of Autism. Strathclyde. National Centre for Autism Studies.
Rothman, S. M. (June 22, 2011). Health advocacy organizations and evidence-based medicine.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 305(24), 2569-2570.
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