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Benefits & Pitfalls of Evidence-Based Model in Health & Healthcare

Evidence-based model or practice in the health and healthcare systems refers to carrying out research in an effort to get information that seeks to prove a certain fact or make a conclusion about an issue. In health and healthcare, evidence-based practice involves “integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and the clients’ value and circumstances” (Hoffman, Bennett & Mar, 2010). With information from several sources, clinicians can be in a position to identify the patient’s problem and lay a base for applying the best available care and intervention as well as provide new methods applicable in combating the particular problem in future.

Evidence-based models seek to provide professionals with knowledge about a particular problem in the patient, or gathering of information through research in order to make decisions in the future (Aveyard & Sharp, 2009). This is opposed from the previous practices where professionals depended on their expertise and experience in making conclusions about clients (Greenhalgh, 1999). Evidence-based models require proof of certain issues through acquiring of evidence to back it up, rather than making a conclusion based on one’s knowledge that at times may be wrong. Evidence-based practice in health and healthcare plays an important role in providing the clients with the best care and treatment, meant to produce the best outcomes (Hoffman, Bennett & Mar, 2010). It has been implemented in many healthcare facilities. However, it still faces pitfalls despite having many benefits.

The evidence-based model aims to promote inquiries in the health and healthcare systems to ensure that decisions are made on an informed basis as opposed to non-informed decisions done in the traditional way (Greenhalgh, 1999). There have been several debates concerning the topic with many citing that such a research may take time and relies heavily on quantitative methods, while others have highlighted limitations involved in using research for evidence provision on which the practiced is based.

One context of evidence-based models is that of educating students or professions in finding out the information they need through researching. Previously or before this model, medical students learned from their lecturers everything they were supposed to do in their practice, while the truth is that things are changing rapidly hence new ways of approaching problems are needed. With the traditional way, when practitioners encountered a new problem, it was difficult to handle it as there was little research taken regularly (Hoffman, Bennett & Mar, 2010).

The evidence-based model generally has five steps that allow clinicians to come up with the best decision. The first step is identifying the information required from the research. As clinicians, the need for conducting research should be to get information concerning a certain area of interest. Such information needs include the need to find out whether diagnosis is correct. The second step is seeking evidence to answer the questions raised, where one should use credible sources for evidence, such as research done previously. The third step of an evidence-based model is looking at the evidence critically to affirm its credibility and quality as well as its application. This is important considering that not all research is accurate.

The fourth step involves incorporating the evidence together with the expertise of clinicians, circumstances surrounding the patient, as well as values and knowledge of the clinicians to come up with the best interpretation of the results (Hoffman, Bennett & Mar, 2010). The final step involves conducting an evaluation on the effectiveness as well as efficiency of the first four steps. One needs to evaluate how they carried out the research in order to come up with a better way of doing it in the future (Hoffman, Bennett & Mar, 2010).

Evidence-based models involve making informed decisions and having evidence to prove that they are the right decisions to make. It involves collecting information from scientific researches done previously to get the best outcome for the clients as well as ensure that in future, it can be used for related cases. Evidence-based models bring together clinical skills that have been used previously and those that an individual clinician holds, ensuring that there is proof of credibility of the decision taken. They also provide a means by which measurement can be done to assess whether the decision made fits the particular case and to provide certainty.

They are designed to improve efficiency of practices through ensuring that the best means of solving a problem are utilized. Evidence-based models ensure that there are no errors in the practice of healthcare as problems are solved after thorough research concerning the problem is done (Edwards & Elwyn, 2009). This way, clinicians reduce the errors made in diagnosing and providing solutions. They also ensure that the best prescription and care is given because clinicians will know what the client requires after comprehensive research, and the best way of providing the needs to the client depending on their circumstances (Dopson & Fitzgerald, 2006)

Another benefit of evidence-based models is providing a solution that can be used in the future and coming up with new ways of solving problems and eliminating methods used previously that pose risks or no longer function well. For instance, if research happens to find that certain drugs pose another side effect that might be harmful to patients, the drugs can be eliminated. Without such evidence, the patient using the drugs would be at a risk. Hence, carrying out research regularly during clinical practices would encourage finding newer and better ways of dealing with certain situations. This further ensures the safety of patients by ensuring the right decisions and services are provided by research teams or agencies. Often, the research used by clinicians in making their decisions is conducted by approved groups of researchers and agencies that are well equipped with the facilities needed and are well-experienced professionals (Aveyard & Sharp, 2009).

There are several debates revolving around the use of evidence-based models where several people and reviewers have criticized their use. The first debate concerns the time taken to conduct the research. While many appreciate that research is important both now and in the future in providing the best outcome for the patients, there is also the concern for time taken as there could be delayed treatment. Many critics feel that time taken for research, such as having to consult previous researches, may cause delayed treatment, which could be harmful to the patient. Before the research or the steps mentioned previously are taken, a patient would have to wait in suffering for long before getting the treatment that the clinicians deem accurate.

Another limitation of evidence-based models in healthcare is that research will not always give an answer to every question. These methods make clinicians more reliable on research and make them forget that their expertise is required to make decisions too, since not all evidence might provide a good basis for making decisions. Over-reliance on research from several sources could also prove to be confusing and one’s knowledge and skills could be challenged leaving clinicians in a difficult position.

Evidence-based care does not allow clinicians to practice their skills without having to consult elsewhere for evidence; hence, they might lack confidence when faced by situations that require immediate intervention. Because evidence-based models advocate for using protocols in making decisions, clinicians may not be in position to treat each patient on a personal level, considering that the research done views all patients as the same or interchangeable in a generalized manner. This sees professionals unable to make decisions without researching and therefore lack an opportunity to develop their skills.

In addition, the debate on costs also arises, where many critics feel that it involves numerous costs especially in consultation of previously conducted research and carrying out new research (Aveyard & Sharp, 2009). Indeed, research is often involved with huge costs where several resources are needed to see the project through such stages as testing its applicability, effectiveness and credibility. Moreover, not all clinicians can be in a position to carry out comprehensive research that can come up with a conclusion and more importantly, solution, and most have to rely on previous research done by others. This research might not fit everybody hence there could be problems arising due to making of decisions using the same. Hence, cost involved might not be worth the effort considering that using clinical skills without having to consult or search for evidence can be time and cost saving (Edwards & Elwyn, 2009).

Despite the advantages of evidence-based models in providing improved quality and efficiency in health care, there are many disadvantages cited by the opposing side, which may not always be true considering that not many clinicians have put the models into practice. Evidence-based practices have faced a number of issues in implementation such as complexity of healthcare systems, requiring strategies that can address this issue. The implementation also needs to take into account the practitioners at an individual level as well as change in the culture of healthcare systems.

In conclusion, evidence-based models are good in terms of offering the best quality care in health considering they rely on research for making decisions. Therefore decisions made are the most accurate ones as a conclusion is drawn from several information sources that assert what is best. It involves integrating research, clinical expertise, values and circumstances of the patients hence it ensures the clients get the treatment that they deserve using the best knowledge available from research.

 

References

Aveyard, H & Sharp, P (2009), A beginner’s guide to evidence based practice in health and social care, Berkshire, Open University Press.

Dopson, S., and Fitzgerald, L (2006), Knowledge to Action? Evidence-based health care in context, Oxford University Press.

Edwards, A &Elwyn, G (2009), shared decision making in health care: Achieving evidence-based patient choice (2nd ed),Oxford, Oxford University Press

Greenhalgh, T (1999), ‘Narrative based medicine in an evidence based world’, British Medical Journal, vol. 318, pp. 323-325.

Hoffman, T, Bennett, S & Del Mar, C (2010), evidence based practice across the health professions, Chatswood NSW, Churchill Livingston.

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Problems Causing Obesity

Obesity is a medical disorder that involves accumulation of excess fat in the body to the extent that it may cause an adverse impact on human health. This in most cases tends to reduce life expectancy or increase problems concerning health. Studies have indicated that obesity is a great risk because it causes immense damage to an individual’s health. Obesity may lead to several diseases such as high blood pressure, heart diseases, and diabetes amongst others. In a majority of affected individuals, fat accumulation may spread around the body or become concentrated on the stomach, hips or thighs. In order to determine the healthy range in a person, the body mass index (BMI) is always applied as a way of determining an individual’s weight (Finkelstein & Zuckerman, 2008). Obesity is a dangerous health problem because it is associated with a good number of various diseases that may even lead to death, for instance, an obese person is likely to encounter cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, sleeping difficulties, and some types of cancer.

Importance of body mass index is that it helps health providers in comparing a person’s weight and height in order to know whether a person is healthy, obese or thin. For instance, a person is known to be healthy or in a normal range, if the body mass index ranges between 19.0 and 25kg/m. On the other hand, an overweight person has a body mass index lying between 25 and 30. However, a person with a range over 30 or even 40 and above is considered to be suffering from obesity. In particular, an individual having a body mass index that is 40 and above is said to be morbidly obese and he or she is at a great health risk. According to statistics, more women than men are noted to be obese. Obesity affects body image hence, influencing self-esteem, which may lead to depression and social anxiety in psychological terms. The common problems associated with obesity comprises of breathing difficulties, troubled walking, or even running, too much sweating, knees and back pains among other health problems. In addition, obesity results into high blood cholesterol and /other mental conditions. Therefore, it is necessary that relevant solution be put in place to help reduce on the growing rate of the problem in the United States of America.

Causes of the Obesity Problem

Various conditions have been identified as causative factors of obesity amongst the global populace. For instance, overeating or too much consumption of food that in most cases does not match with the physical expenditure of the food consumed in a day. This implies that any time a person consumes food with more calories than he or she is able to burn, then the chances of the person becoming obese are very high. Research shows that human bodies require calories in order to sustain life and also be active physically (World Health Organization, 2011). Nevertheless, to keep weight, people require making a balance between the energy consumed and the energy used. “Thus, consuming more calories than one is able to utilize affects the energy balance hence leading into weight gain and obesity” (World Health Organization, 2011). However, it is important that various factors be also put into consideration when dealing with issues causing obesity amongst the majority populace other than focusing on food intake and expenditure alone.

In the United States of America, obesity is blamed on the environmental conditions. These factors involve lifestyle behaviors, which include the eating behavior of a person and the level of physical activity. In many incidences, Americans have the habit of eating out and consuming large quantities of foods especially high fat fast meals attributable to their busy schedules. This shows that they always accord preeminence to taste and convenience as opposed to nutrition. Therefore, because of the busy schedules, most people residing within the American nation have less time in engaging in physical exercises. They consume plenty of fatty foods and utilize less of the consumed food leading to the development of obesity. Additionally, most people in the United States hold a high preference to driving rather than walking to work. In fact, a majority of the places lack sidewalks and have vending machines with high calories and fatty snacks within the workplace hence promoting obesity (World Health Organization, 2011).

Another cause of obesity in the country is social factors, which include poverty, and lack of enough or adequate education. In most cases, processed foods tend to be affordable in terms of their prices, accessibility and preparation requirements than the alternative healthier foods such as fresh fruits and vegetables. Thus, due to inadequate monetary assets towards purchasing healthy foods, a majority of residents opt for cheap foods that are full of fats thus contributing to the growth of obesity in the country. Other factors causing obesity may include inability to access safe recreational places or even afford the cost of gym membership (Smith, 2009). Therefore, social factors such as poverty are the major causes of obesity, although research shows that even individuals with high-income levels are also being affected by obesity. This may be attributable to lack of time for physical exercises.

Obesity has also been categorized as a genetic ailment. Research reveals that some genetic disorders of overweight are transferred from one generation to another making it difficult for such people to control obesity since biological compositions and information translates to an obese structure. According to studies, genes affect various weight related processes in a human body including metabolic rates, blood glucose metabolism, storage of fat, and hormones amongst others. Young children whose mothers are overweight are noted to be very inactive thus tend to gain extra pounds every day as they develop. Lack of early or proper interventions leads to obesity. In addition, children with normal weight whose parents are obese are likely to have a lesser metabolic rate than normal weight children whose parents are non-obese, which can result into problems in terms of weight in their adulthood. Therefore, this shows that a predisposition to obesity can also be inherited genetically.

Research also evidences that obesity is caused by family influences. For instance, a child is likely to become obese because of the behavioral patterns exhibited by the parents especially in terms of shopping styles, cooking patterns, food consumption and physical activities (OECD, 2005). These patterns are noted to be very significant owed to the fact that they have an effect on a child’s energy balance and subsequently their weight. Therefore, the family’s lifestyle and diet patterns are major contributors to the present obesity problem in children. This is particularly noted within the rising affluence reflected in the society. Currently, most children lack enough physical exercises because of the technological development that has resulted into the computer games, appealing television shows that actively act as constraints towards any form of motion and lacking physical exercises. “Most families like to shop for sugary meals mostly for the children when they go for picnics instead of preparing healthy foods that consists fresh fruits and vegetables” (Smith, 2009).

Therefore, the preceding discussion reveals the conditions that increase an individual’s chances of becoming obese including social factors, environmental issues, wrong diets and fatty foods, lack of physical exercises, influence from family behavioral patterns, lack of enough knowledge concerning the importance of consuming healthy foods and lack of daily physical exercises (OECD, 2005). However, these causes can be overcome, avoided or reduced if each person develops a positive attitude concerning health through responsible actions including eating habits. Each person can take full responsibility of guarding his or her health in order to avoid the obesity condition.

Solutions to Obesity

Obesity presently is viewed as a complex problem due to the various causative elements including physiological, behavioral, social, economic incidences, and environmental factors. Therefore, to reduce or eliminate this problem, a multiphased approach that aims beyond food consumption only would be best in handling the given condition. This may actually require stringent practices including the consideration of balanced and nutritious foods in all forms of purchases, turning off computer games and televisions at home, and promoting family physical activities.

In order to reduce or eliminate obesity especially in the US warrants the creation of health associations and programs. For instance, health associations should collaborate with food and beverage companies so that they creation of a constructive agreement mandating improvements in snacks and beverages contents, particularly those sold to schoolchildren. This could include a reduction in harmful contents, make improvements in terms of nutrients levels, and manufacturing low-calorie beverages in learning institutions (Bagchi, 2010). Through this collaboration and agreement, young children are able to mature and have healthy lives with lessened likelihoods of acquiring obesity.

Schools should promote physical education programs as part of the learning schedules in order to help reduce obesity in children. This can be achieved through the provision of quality physical education such as running, cycling, swimming, skating, among other physical games. Therefore, to ensure that schools adhere to this program, fitness should be integrated with teaching in accordance to the Kids Act to be established by the government (Bagchi, 2010). Through this Act, schools will be required to give a full report concerning the quality and quantity of physical education they offer as a way of providing children with the opportunity to participate in physical activities. Research shows that schoolchildren in elementary classes require an average of about one hundred and fifty minutes of physical education per week, while high school and middle class children require about two hundred and twenty-five minutes per week.

On the other hand, adults should also be motivated in addressing the issue both at home and at workplaces. It has been noted that most American citizens or adults rarely participate in daily physical exercises. Therefore, to enable them adopt the physical program, the work schedule should incorporate thirty-minutes of physical exercise in all working days, as this will help in reducing the risk developing obesity to a good number of individuals (Emmis Communications, 2011). By reducing obesity risks, it implies that there will also be a reduction in various diseases caused by obesity such as cardiovascular ailments, diabetes and heart attack. Adults can also avoid obesity through developing a community setting that promotes more walking, and cycling to help people avoid sedentary lives. Therefore, for better results concerning obesity reduction, awareness programs should be put in place so that people may be educated or enlightened on issues concerning the same such as its short and long-term consequences and risks.

The awareness program should target diverse audiences ranking from children to adults. Thus, it should be established in learning institutions, workplaces, in community settings and households. Some systematic changes such as sustainable policy, environmental changes and comprehensive edicts should be encouraged by integrating them towards the creation of extreme strategies that affects the health and security of an economy. Thus, maintaining a healthier and productive country can be achieved by keeping the commitment of upholding such measures. Community based programs are the best solutions in reducing or eliminating the problem of obesity.

Consumers’ act as the most significant individuals in the need for the provision of durable solutions to obesity since they make personalized daily choices with regard to food and lifestyle. Individuals should start addressing weight gain on a personal level by aligning to healthy feeding patterns, largely emanating from a variety of healthy food choices. “Consumers are highly motivated by taste, quality, convenience, and price thus creating a gap between attitudes and actions that need to be considered, especially by food processing and preparation industries (Kelly, 2006)”.

Such industries should offer reliable information to consumers concerning nutrition to enable them make a responsible decision in terms of dietary combinations. Food producers should be honest and provide relevant information that promotes education in nutrition at all levels. The producers could do this by collaborating with science-based communities and the government so that they are able to satisfy the needs of the consumers through healthier products.

Best Solution

The solution concerning consumer responsibility is important and good primarily by the fact that only an individual possesses the ability to offer effectual control and management of own feeding patterns. This implies that every person bears the liability of ensuring that foods consumed are healthy in terms of nutritional computations. Additionally, an individual holds the responsibility of ensuring that some preset period is created for physical exercises despite the busy work schedules. Thus, this demonstrates that holding other factors, as significant causatives of obesity may not be particularly rational because unless people value their own health nothing will. Currently, there is accessible and affordable information concerning healthy lifestyles. Therefore, each person has the duty to ensure that he has the right information that can help in achieving balanced diets and physical exercises, both in the family level and at the work places.

Opposing Views to the Causes of Obesity

Obesity in the United States of America has been blamed on environmental factors such as the lifestyles and improper feeding behaviors that involve the consumption of fast food and an unrelenting form of ignorance towards physical exercises due to busy working schedules(Bagchi, 2010). This may not be true in all situations because some people do not become obese because of environmental factors. Obesity can be dealt with if individuals become more concerned with their health. This is because most people develop obesity because of too much ignorance especially in terms of what is to be consumed. Thus, the claim that environmental factors cause obesity may not be applicable. Therefore, it is important that individuals become more responsible in controlling their eating habits especially in the consumption of fast foods and also participate in physical exercises even for thirty minutes.

Concerning the family influence, every person has the right to make own choices as shaped by own subjective standpoints. This is quite applicable to mature individuals. Therefore, it is relatively irrational to hold family members, especially parents as having sole liability towards obesity. A person can take the responsibility of his her own health by refusing to be influenced by family preferences such as eating habits and exercising acts. This thus implies that family cannot be rated as a strong cause of obesity because it can be controlled by mature individuals. For instance, children can chose to play outdoor games that involve physical movement rather than staying indoors watching TV or playing computer games (Mooney, 2001).. Therefore, all those causes of obesity can be eliminated if only people developed a positive attitude towards work and thus prevent obesity for the benefit of the future generations. For instance, individuals should aim at eating balanced meals all the time, make daily physical activities as part of their lives, and taking full responsibility of their own lives.

By overcoming the obesity problem, a good number of diseases that may lead to death could also be reduced at higher rate. For instance, recent research shows that a majority of people in the United States are suffering from cardiovascular diseases due to unhealthy feeding. Such incidence can be avoided greatly simply by living a healthy life. However, it is good to note that one may also contract the outlined secondary ailments even with the healthy practices due to biological aspects like genetic materials. Nevertheless, despite the fact that genetic factors cannot be changed, at least something can be done to avoid prolonging or increasing the problem. Therefore, holding the view alone does not prove as a strong rationale for obesity. Obesity is a curable disease if taken seriously by the government and the people themselves. For instance, the government could provide awareness programs concerning obesity and its consequences. This will enable people to be aware of the outcomes of becoming obese hence be motivated to work against it.

 

References

Bagchi, D. (2010). Global perspectives on childhood obesity: Current status, consequences and prevention. London, UK: Academic.

Emmis Communications (2011, May/June). Play Hard, Work Hard: Cutting physical education in order to boost test scores has the opposite effect, studies show. The Alcade, 99, 23.

Finkelstein, E., & Zuckerman, L. (2008). The fattening of America: How the economy makes us fat, if it matters, and what to do about it. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Kelly, E. B. (2006). Obesity. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Mooney, L. A. (2001). Understanding social problems. Scarborough, OT: Nelson Thomson Learning.

OECD. (2005). Health at a glance: OECD indicators 2005. Paris, France: OECD Publishers.

Smith, P. K. (2009). Obesity among poor Americans: Is public assistance the problem?Nashville, TN: VanderbiltUniversity Press.

World Health Organization. (2011). Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health. Obesity and overweight. Retrieved from

 

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Problems Causing Obesity

Obesity is a disorder that human beings suffer from due to excess storage of fat in their body system. It is a problem that many are undergoing, and is caused by foods that are high in fat. When fatty foods are made easily available to people, the more they accumulate in their bodies and cause a high probability of suffering from obesity. Although this may be so, we cannot entirely put the blame on fatty foods ignoring the fact that there are other more concrete reasons causing obesity. They include lacking self-awareness, psychological stress and attitude on individual responsibility (Kelly, 2006). If these factors are also explained and understood, they might change the perspective of pointing the cause of obesity at only one direction.

Obesity in the United States is mainly blamed on the government because it is known to offer subsidies to farmers that plant ingredients used in the processing of fatty foods, making them sell at a cheaper price than other healthy foods. As a result, consumers will choose to buy food that is cheaper to enable them save cost. This reason looks convincing but ignores other issues causing obesity. For example, people who buy these products may not be aware of the health risks associated with obesity and instead live in ignorance, and are not accepting of personal blame due to becoming overweight (Kelly, 2006). One may think that they are saving costs by depending on fast food, but fail to remember that if suffering from obesity, life will demand more expenses through hospital bills.

It is also said to be easier to prepare processed food because it takes lesser time to cook and prepare before consumption. Healthy foods such as vegetables have to be washed and cut before being cooked while fatty foods like sausages are cooked instantly without being washed and are ready within a short time.  People opt for the option that will take less of their time due to their busy schedules but this does not qualify as a good reason to being overweight. If one forms an optimistic attitude towards responsibility of maintaining healthy weight, he should be willing to devote some of the time on his schedule to work towards that goal (Kelly, 2006). Many people, especially those who come from work in the evening, may find it challenging to devote some time to physical activity or prepare healthy meals.

Most would prefer to relax from a long day of work and order fast food that tastes much better and is less time consuming in preparation. If one is fully aware of the benefits of maintaining a healthy weight including reducing the risk of suffering from deadly diseases such as diabetes or heart disease, he will do everything in his power to get it done. People should also understand their relationship with different kinds of food in order to know if the direction of their eating habits requires change or not.

There are also other ways of discouraging obesity even if fatty foods are made easily available and tempting to the consumers. One of these ways is known as behavior therapy and involves forming strategies that require being in control when faced with such a situation (Kelly, 2006). For example, if one goes to a food court that has many sections including fast food and vegetarian, and sees people queuing hungrily on the fast food area, he should condition himself to buy healthy food and therefore queue in the vegetarian section. If one is watching a television program that encourages consumption of unhealthy foods, he should switch to another channel that is does not do so but is still entertaining.

Obesity has many causes and more will continue to be revealed in the future as research is being carried out. However, a large part is determined by individual responsibility. This is evident from the fact that one is accountable for choosing to eat unhealthily and failing to exercise, or choosing to eat healthily and engaging in exercise. Indeed, as much as the major blame is directed towards the American government, the individual decisions made about one’s lifestyle should be fully considered.

 

Reference

Kelly, E. B. (2006). Obesity. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

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Public Policy

Introduction

            Public policy is a topic for which many scholars have come up with different definitions to try to explain its real meaning. However, in the easiest terms, public policy is the input of a government in addressing any public issue. According to the PennsylvaniaStateUniversity (2011), it involves governance laws, regulations, and principal guide in administrative and executive actions. Public policy is very important as it influences every aspect of our lives. In economics, the stability of a nation is largely determined by the fiscal and monetary policies of the government. Socially and more specifically in regards to health care, education and the legal systems of justice, public policy is involved. Therefore, this subject cannot be overlooked under any circumstances.

The Major Stakeholder’s Level of Influence and Agencies they worked For

            In The Bay of Pigs, Cuba, also known as La Playa named after a beach in Bay of Pigs, is where the landing of the armed Cuban exiles took place. This was an attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro, who had rose to power in an armed revolt according to J.F. Kennedy presidential library and museum (2010). The American government distrusted Castro citing his ties with the Soviet Union. For this reason, the United States trained and funded Cuban exiles with the intention to have an invasion to oust Fidel Castro from power. They anticipated support from the Cuban people and the forces for an invasion that sought to set up a regime friendly to the United States.

This training program was approved in March 1960 by President Eisenhower and training camps were set up in Guatemala. The anti-Castro Cuban exiles according to the presidential library (2011) were led by Jose Miro Cardona who was a former member of Castro’s government. He was head of the revolutionary council of Cuba and was to take over power had the invasion succeeded. The invasion plan was authorized by the newly elected American President J. F. Kennedy shortly after his inauguration in 1961.National Security Archives, (2004). This operation was supposed to keep the Americans involvement in the invasion a secret.

Stakeholders Primary Values

Some critics blame President Kennedy for the failed invasion of the Bay of Pigs with some arguing that there was not enough support from the United States government. However, another group of critics thinks that the attacks were unnecessary. They argue that the failed attempt was due to irrational decisions by the president, Oracle Education Foundation, (2011). The secreted support by Kennedy’s administration is seen as an endeavor for selfish gain by many annalists. In addition, the failed attempt is seen as an indicator of inefficiency in the CIA and incompetence in their operations. The decision made by President Kennedy to oust a sitting president to form an American friendly regime is perceived by many as selfish and dictatorial.

Betrayal is evident in this case in both the Cuban and American government. Jose Cardon, the leader of the Cuban revolutionary council was in the Castro’s government. According to the National Security Archives (2004), he was proposed by Castro as the new Cuban ambassador in the United States. He later turned against Castro and headed a revolutionary council to oust him. The J. F. Kennedy’s administration supported the Cuban exiles to invade their own country. When the attempt failed, it was expected that President Kennedy would commit his troops rather than let the brigade be overrun National Security Archives (2004). Unfortunately, he was so determined to disguise his countries support, Presidential Library, (2011).

In this invasion, the government of the United States cannot be credited as one with good public policies. President Kennedy continued war against Cuba was one that made him look like a cold war warrior. It is evident the impact and effects that the aftermath of the invasion had on both countries. Fifty years later and still, the relationship between Cuba and the United States of America is still poor. The decision to invade was a one-time policy that changed the image of the two states negatively towards each other. Distrust was entrenched and that brought the two countries against each other.

Having good public policies is one of the best to achieving economic, social and political growth. Policies that take care of the welfare of the citizen in all aspects of their lives is something the leaders in governments and policy makers should make a priority. Big economies have thrived because of putting in place policies that have given way to great economic growth. Policies I would call them principles or blue prints for a better and more fulfilling life. Governments are responsible in making this policies and that is why high levels of deliberation and broad expertise is required when formulating this policies. A careful approach must be must be given since this policies are made to govern the countries resources.

Policies regarding social services for example should be handled with a lot of urgency. Policies regarding medical care and higher learning for example should put more emphasis on benefiting the patients and students respectively. The government should formulate policies that protects it people from any form of harm be it military war or economical tough times. Policies to cushion citizens from adversities of life are a sign of good governance. Good policies make good governance and a good government makes a great country, an economic powerhouse. Any state scheduled to make an impact in the world’s economies spectrum has to embrace the culture of good governance. Good governance on the other hand is a creation of good Public Policies.

 

References

National Security Archives. (2004).Bay of Pigs Declassification. Retrieved from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/10/

Oracle Education Foundation, (2011).Bay of Pigs Cuban invasion. Retrieved from http://www.oraclefoundation.org/board.html

J.F. Kennedy presidential library and museum (2010). Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba. Retrieved from http://www.jfklibrary.org/Search.aspx?nav=N:4294955350

PennsylvaniaStateUniversity. (2011). Department information. Retrieved from http://bpub.wharton.upenn.edu/

 

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Annotated Bibliography

This essay is going to explore the Australian identity in different perspectives of different migrant groups. In the first article, Australian identity to the Chinese is viewed as an unattainable aspect due to the segregation practices evident within the nation (Tan 2006). In the second article, Australian identity stems from the institution of mutual interests among various cultures of Asia (Khoo 2011). In the third article, Australian identity as noted by Italians is acquired from assimilation attained through collective labelling in terms of psychology (Sala, Dandy & Rapley 2010). In the fourth article, Australian identity is largely more ethnic than religious for Turkish Islamists (Hopkins 2011). In the fifth article, Australian identity is based on equity and acceptance for Turkish and Latin females (Zevallos 2008).

 

Hopkins, L 2011, ‘A Contested Identity: Resisting the Category Muslim-Australian’, Immigrants & Minorities, 29, 1, pp. 110-131, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

Hopkins employs the aspect of religion as a form of identity and uses it to review the contention arising from the same, as noted primarily in Australia concerning Turkish individuals. This is because employing the religion aspect in offering a diverse form of identity, masks the cultural and ethnic issues on the topic of identity. Turkish Muslims within the study argue that despite their Islamic practices, various sects and levels of faith are noted within the group in terms of liberalists and conformists (Hopkins 2011). Hopkins presents a one-sided discussion by centring on Turkish Muslims alone instead of offering a comprehensive discussion through analysing the impact of the media on other ethnic-religious groups within the Islamic faith. This would have achieved a good critique factor in the discussion for stronger premises and subsequently, a reasonable argument. The article accords relevance to the study by offering a connection between religion and Australian identity.

 

Khoo, O 2011, ‘Regionalizing Asian Australian identities’, Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 25, 4, pp. 461-464, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

The publication examines the nature of relationships present between Asian communities and Australians with regard to identity. Due to their communist practices, Asians present in Australia bear the same approach in trying to preserve their identity against cultural amalgamation. Khoo gathers the given viewpoints from various Asian renowned scholars partaking in the 2009 Asian Australian Identities symposium creating credibility (Khoo 2011). Credibility is also imparted by the use of reliable secondary sources for the given discussion. However, most of the writers have been ranked as being ethnically prejudiced and thereby making it hard to ascertain the truth in the given statements since a high predisposition is given towards favouring Asian race. Khoo’s article will be helpful in the study by offering varying Asian viewpoints with regard to Australian identity.

 

Sala, E, Dandy, J, & Rapley, M 2010, ‘‘Real Italians and wogs’: The discursive construction of Italian identity among first generation Italian immigrants in Western Australia’, Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 20, 2, pp. 110-124, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

Sala, Dandy and Rapley’s research centres on the use of psychological approaches in deciphering the various viewpoints held by Italians in terms of identity. Primary information is employed within the study, acting as strength in terms of collection and reflection of Italian views on Australian identity. This is achieved through the utilization of focus groupings coupled with personal interviews on the subjective perspective of what an individual terms being an Italian within the Australian nation (Sala, Dandy & Rapley 2010). Participants employed in the investigation comprise of individuals who relocated to Australia during their childhood or adulthood. The use of primary information in the publication acts as a weakness due to the combined form of bigotry evidenced by the participants. Lack of in-depth secondary information prevents the reader form according an appraisal on the reliability factor through assessing the similarities of divergences that may be present on both data channels. The article is applicable to the study for revealing the Italian perspective on Australian identity.

 

Tan, C 2006, ‘‘The Tyranny of Appearance’: Chinese Australian Identities and the Politics of Difference’, Journal of Intercultural Studies, 27, 1/2, pp. 65-82, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

Tan’s article explores various views captured from a group of individuals that have descended from Chinese natives who relocated into the Australian nation. The study acquires primary information from the participants with regard to identity and ethnicity as noted within the Australian setting. It is evident that the Chinese have noted disparity forces within the nation as they are often referred to as the ‘others’ by Australians (Tan, 2006). Tan therefore offers a succinct analysis of the prejudices operating in Australia as reflected by the inability of the Chinese to be entirely incorporated within the society as noted from the acquired statements. The publication is unbalanced notably because it offers high pre-eminence to primary data and only a small fraction for secondary information. Additionally, bias is created through the use of a single author. However, materials employed for the secondary analysis are peer-reviewed hence acting as a credibility factor in the article. Tan’s publication is useful for the study as it highlights the Chinese views of isolation practice acting as a constraint towards an attainment the Australian identity.

 

Zevallos, Z 2008, ”You Have to be Anglo and Not Look Like Me’: identity and belonging among young women of Turkish and Latin American backgrounds in Melbourne, Australia’, Australian Geographer, 39, 1, pp. 21-43, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

Zevallos’ study employs primary information centring on the female gender with the studied ages being seventeen to twenty-eight. The sample covers fifty individuals, half with Turkish origin whereas the other half bears a Latin background. All participants have spent a majority of their lives in Australia but have frequently journeyed to their nations of origin yet their identity largely remains within the Australian nation (Zevallos 2008). The publication only offers primary information acquired from the participants and thus it is highly biased. Additionally, it only identifies premises given towards the lack of an identity within the nations of origin but does not assess whether the same is experienced in Australia by the same participants or different ones. Zevallos’ article is quite useful for the study as it offers various gender-based standpoints for identity construction in Australia from Turkish and Latin immigrants.

References

Hopkins, L 2011, ‘A Contested Identity: Resisting the Category Muslim-Australian’, Immigrants & Minorities, 29, 1, pp. 110-131, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

Khoo, O 2011, ‘Regionalizing Asian Australian identities’, Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 25, 4, pp. 461-464, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

Sala, E, Dandy, J, & Rapley, M 2010, ‘‘Real Italians and wogs’: The discursive construction of Italian identity among first generation Italian immigrants in Western Australia’, Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 20, 2, pp. 110-124, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

Tan, C 2006, ‘‘The Tyranny of Appearance’: Chinese Australian Identities and the Politics of Difference’, Journal of Intercultural Studies, 27, 1/2, pp. 65-82, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

Zevallos, Z 2008, ”You Have to be Anglo and Not Look Like Me’: identity and belonging among young women of Turkish and Latin American backgrounds in Melbourne, Australia’, Australian Geographer, 39, 1, pp. 21-43, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 7 September 2011.

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Behavioral Approach

Question A

1.  In order to increase a desirable behavior in students, it is good to reinforce the notable behavior. This is done through activities that encourage the growth of that behavior until it is established. Offering rewards when the good behavior is accomplished is one way of encouraging or reinforcing that good behavior. To decrease undesirable behaviors, the teachers will try to ignore them. This can be done by applying negative methods such as not rewarding that behavior. For example, if a student earns some points when he/she finishes his/her homework, then they will not get any points when they fail to finish it.

Most parents are worried about the mode of discouraging undesirable behaviors. This mostly concerns the use of punishments in order to discourage the behaviors. Parents should be assured that punishments would be used as the last option. Parents should also not worry about being biased. Teachers know how to handle a class as a whole as well as individually, especially when it comes to modifying negative behaviors.

2. A number of benefits are obtained by students whose teachers use assertive discipline. Students get know what behavior is expected of them by the teacher. Consistent and firm limits are implemented by the teacher so that students are also encouraged to adopt good behaviors. Students have a right to be consistently encouraged and to be taught behaviors that are both responsible and acceptable. One major concern that can be raised with this approach is that the students can get too used to the method. For example, if a student gets a warning every time he/she comes to class without being prepared, he/she might get used to it.

 

 

Question B

            1. Behavioral models are meant to encourage the growth of desirable behaviors and discourage the growth of undesirable behaviors. They work in both ways. On the other hand, assertive discipline is designed to improve the discipline in the students. Secondly, the behavioral models can change depending on what the teachers agree on, and the students do not have specific rights. However, assertive discipline has consistent concepts and the students have rights.

2. A teacher can evaluate a class behavior at the end of two weeks. If the class behavior is pleasing, he/she can reward the class by giving them a free class period to play a computer game of their choice, watch a movie or offer a leadership role to the best-behaved student. This is putting the Premack Principle in practice.

3. One major concern in both teachers and parents is that behavioral approaches can be disastrous when taught by unethical teachers. It might result to a hatred buildup in the students. The ethical concern raised where assertive discipline is concerned is because it deals with the symptoms and not the causes. For example, it deals with the stealing but not the reason why the student stole.

4. Changes or events in a given surrounding following a given behavior are referred to as consequences. One can use the reward consequence, where the teacher gives a reward when good behavior in class is noted, the punishing consequence where a punishment (for example, remaining in class for ten minutes during break time) is given for bad behavior and an extinguishing punishment where there is no reward given as a way of ignoring a bad behavior.

 5. Watching a movie of the students’ choice or having a party after the students have earned agreed on points in a given period due to good behavior in class is a positive reinforcement that I can apply. Failing to give any points due to noted bad behavior and failing to give the students a party during that period if the students fail to reach the points agreed on is a negative reinforcement I can use in my class.

6. When students get a reward for good behavior such as having a party, they are encouraged to behave well so that they can get another party for the same good behavior. If they do not have a party for misbehaving, they are encouraged to behave better in order to earn the party. This is why a consequence should follow behavior; in order to point out which behavior is acceptable and which one is not.

 

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Poetry from WWI

The speaker of the poem is a man who has been at war describing his experiences at war, written in first persona. This person is at war and describing his experiences to the people at home, who do not know what it really means to be at war.

The situation in the poem in the first stanza is a man at war, a man who is jovial, but not at this moment when he is in the battle field, holding to his riffle despite having injuries such as wounds implied by bandages he still has to hold on. In the following stanza he acknowledges the essence of the oath that soldiers take before departing for war. As they were taking the oaths they were probably not sure of what real war was like, but now does and the oath does give them courage to ignore their feelings. The oath states that what they are doing is of great interest to their country and very right hence they are able to carry on their duty without hesitance or fear. Here the speaker is describing events taking place at the war, when he says that he did hear music while on duty from its silence. At war, the sound one expects is gunfire and explosions, hence, this describes his feelings where this was music to his ears, since war had made him numb to feelings. Silence to be taken to mean the loneliness that a man at war and facing death feels, and has to concentrate on fighting, forgetting the sound of the bombing and gunfire. To illustrate the lack of feelings at the war when he says he found peace in the explosion that spouted reddest spate, which is probably blood. This shows their devotion to their country or patriotism to a point of offering their life for its sake.

In the next stanza, the speaker talks about feelings of togetherness with the soldiers despite having differences with their opponents. He feels that they share sorrow of darkness in hell together, considering the war field to be hell. He further describes the battlefield as a trembling of flare, probably because the soldiers were scared, and needed help when h talks of flare that is used to signal for help although there seemed to be none coming forth. He further centers on feelings by mentioning heaven to illustrate peace that is only gotten through death. The last stanza talks about feelings of war to the audience, telling them what is real meaning of being at war. He refers to them as lacking the real meaning of war when he says that the people shall not regard their work, and says that they deserve to be cried for and they did not owe the people anything, but instead the people owed them. The poem has centered on describing the events at a battlefield and the feelings of those fighting the war. The poem is specific to war.

The poem’s tone is a combination of irony and seriousness. The soldier writing the poem is very serious about the feelings of the war and his experiences.

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GLBT Community

Introduction

The GLBT community refers to gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people and cultures worldwide dating back to the first recorded incidences of love within the same sex and sexuality of the ancient civilization. Currently, what has remained after many years of persecution, stigma, shame, suppression, and secrecy has now been pursued and intertwined into a historical narrative (Duberman, 1997).

The GLBT history began in the United States of America but it has been adopted by many other countries. People’s history has been covered, that is both the rights of the GLBT people, and the civil rights movements. Some of the recorded histories of these group of people comprises of individuals engaging in relationships with other people of similar sex or the opposite sex (Koch, 1999). However, some incidences involving same-sex love and sexuality have been recorded within almost all ancient civilizations.

“How we got here” from a past of greater intolerance and repression of GLBT individuals

Research shows that elderly people perceive lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals and relationships in a more different manner compared to the younger people. It is recognized that each person is influenced or shaped differently in part by the major social events that took place during their lifetime. Such events may include the struggles and success of the civil right movements among others. These three people had some differences just as revealed by the oral interviews, for instance, in the oral history interview relating to Allen Bennet, it was noted that he was a homosexual during his late teen years but because of strong and strict antigay rules at the seminary during those days, he remained in secrecy. Compared to the interview with Rebecca, she revealed herself as a lesbian who had been married but got a divorce after getting two children. This shows that she was born a lesbian although she tried to hide her sexual differences for along time, she could not hold it any more and that is why she got divorced. Another person in this group includes the interview with Reverend Robert Clement who came out openly as the first gay priest encouraging other gays to come and join his church. Reverend Robert was born a gay and even though he ventured into priesthood, he could not hide his sexual differences. Therefore, in these three interviews, it is noted that these people had some similarities in that they were brought up in Christian homes but because of each person’s, views concerning life, they had to make a choice in their own lives. They are similar in that they all belong to the GLBT society.

Role of religious institutions in shaping people’s attitude to sexual morality

In most cases, religion always tries to address moral issues that occur from the sexuality of people, particularly in interactions between human beings. Moral codes focusing on sexuality, morality and ethics have been established by a good number of different religions in the society. According to Meezan (2009), these codes may not be able to deal with sexual issues directly but often try to reduce incidents that could lead to sexual desires and also influence the activities and practices of people in terms of sexuality. Society’s religious beliefs, environmental conditions and social factors are noted to be the major factors that are associated with standards of sexual behavior within a community. Therefore, religions have a bigger role to play when it comes to sexual morality of a society.

Most religions do not support the idea of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender. Such religions include Christianity and Islam. This can be proved by the interview with Allen Bennet who was a homosexual. He tried to suppress his sexual immorality because it was not permitted in the seminary. However, these interviews largely tried to demonstrate the role of religious institutions in shaping people’s attitude toward sexual morality. The participants in the interview were shown to be leaders in various religions who because of the fear of coming out to declare their status had to stay in secrecy for long since they knew that they might be condemned due to what others termed sexual immorality. For instance, Allen was scared until he got an invitation from an activist friend to come out as a gay rabbi in the media.

However, Rev. Robert marched in the first gay parade coming out as the first gay priest encouraging other gays to join his church. This led to a good number of gay people joining him. Therefore, because of this positive attitude of the church towards the GLBT, many people who were hiding came out openly motivating others to join the group (Wilcox, 2009). This implies that religion stands a greater chance of influencing and shaping people’s attitudes toward sexual morality than other social institutions. Each religion has the power and permission to either lead the people in the ‘right’ way or encourage other members of GLBT to join the religion, as they will not be stigmatized.

How individuals and groups can have an impact on powerful social institutions

An institution is referred to as any structure, or measures of social order, that guides the acts of a group of people or individuals within a particular human society. Individuals and groups can have an impact on powerful social institutions because they are known to create these institutions through various functions in order for the institutions to serve them (Richardson, 2002). The way people perceive a social institution may affect that institution positively or negatively. For instance, a church, which is a social institution, may be impacted positively or negatively by individuals or groups of people.

The way people behave and their views concerning the church or a religion may have an impact on the institution. If a particular group of people decided to make a church openly welcoming lesbians or homosexuals, that church or religion may be viewed by other people as immoral. This is because gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender lifestyles in most religions are forbidden. A learning institution can grow as a well-disciplined place if only the students, the staff and the teachers are also disciplined because these are what make an institution function effectively.  

References

Duberman, M. (1997). A queer world: the center for Lesbian and Gay Studies reader. New York, NY: University Press

Koch, P. (1999). Sexuality in America: understanding our sexual values and behavior. New York, NY: Continuum International Publishing Group

Meezan, W. (2009).Handbook of research with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations.New York, NY: Taylor & Francis

Richardson, D. (2002). Handbook of lesbian and gay studies. New York, NY: SAGE

Wilcox, M. (2009).Queer women and religious individualism. Michigan, MA: IndianaUniversity Press. Retrieved from http://www.lgbtran.org/OralHistory.aspx

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Application of Fire Research

As the name suggests, fire research is a field that employs a statistical and measurable approach in the handling and deterrence of fire outbreaks. Science aids with the collection and analysis of quantifiable information concerning a given phenomenon in a bid to ensure that a situation or problem is adequately handled for optimal resource consumption (Lindsey, & Mic, 2010). From various investigations, it is evident that science engages research through observation, data gathering through the use of questionnaires or interviews, creating a theoretical outline, testing research premises, offering proposals for dealing with a given problem and finally, the study’s outcomes. The same approach is therefore presently employed by the scientific community and firemen towards enhanced fire handling practices through pragmatic preventive procedures.

Over time, observations have generated information on areas that experience fire breakages, the identified reasons for the fire outbreak and the environmental issues that may have enhanced the given situation. Through such, various research questions are developed to gain a higher comprehension of the issue. The results are quite useful to firefighters by aiding in instances such as enhancing precision with regard to fire perils. Various fire training institutions have used the approach to instruct firefighters on distinct phases in which fires start, develop and extend, toxic elements present in the fire and how to alleviate them, use of automated simulations in obtaining the most useful evacuation processes towards the affected individuals with regard to time, and thermal features of different materials, amongst others (Drysdale, 2011).

Presently, fire research has expanded to accommodate other academic disciplines like psychology to aid in understanding human conduct such as clustering once a fire occurs, and chemistry to deal with the structure and components of given materials. Physics deals with issues like velocity calculations in terms of fire spreads while mathematics aids with distance and time computations for fast and safe evacuations.

 

References

Drysdale, D. (2011). An Introduction to Fire Dynamics. Mississauga, ON: John Wiley and Sons.

Lindsey, J. T., & Mic, G. (2010). Applications of Fire Research and Improvement. Cambridge, UK: Pearson.

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What Made The Difference For The Two Wes Moore?

            For a business enterprise to achieve quality management in production and service, certain steps must be followed. These steps are simply referred to as Key Performance Indicators (KPI). All departments in an organization must be keen to look at its performance as they differ in each sector. In this study, I will be analyzing the KPIs in various departments in a formal organization. These are policies and practices that are exercised in an organization to yield positive results. To be able to analyze the performance, monitoring modules like benchmarks and target levels are considered necessary.

The administration is in charge of leadership, planning and monitoring the business. The main KPI under the administration is the purpose driving the organization. That the system runs in a schedule that improves production efficiency as noted by. IBA, Group a.s .Managerial Accounting and Production Performance Analysis System, 8 September 2011. Web.1993. by looking at the goals set and ambitions, it easy to point out the performance of the company. This may include setting up targets and benchmarks. Capital spread ratio per employee is further a key performance indicator.

Features and benefits for the shareholders and business managers is also a KPI. A company with quality production does well financially. If the company does well then it is normal that their benefits and features will also be outstanding. Communication is also vital hence, accessibility through the internet would be a crucial indicator. It is also important to develop a personnel motivation system to boost employees’ drive. IBA, Group a.s .Managerial Accounting and Production Performance Analysis System, 8 September 2011. Web.1993. Budgetary allocations for technical back up and maintenance is a preventive approach that ensures security.

Finance includes planning and monitoring cash flow, profit and losses and is the department is responsible for stopping losses. The department also controls succession plan and all other financial dealings. Financial ratio is also an indicator of the productivity and quality of service. This is achieved through audits and asset registration. Financial planning is a core thing in any business desiring to achieve great heights. A good supervision of cash and informed investments area some of the choices that makes some businesses big. Successful organizations have just learned to do things in a different way.

What made the difference between the two we moirés was simply chances and choices where one ended in prison and the other in the military. In business just like the moores, it’s about chances and choices made according to Moore, Wes. The Other Wes Moore .24 June 2011.

The choices made for the company should be deliberated upon widely to come up with the best decision. That is the main reason we have growing organizations with others closing down. Good planning and careful study of the market dynamics may be of great use. The key indicators of performance in any organization will always be affecting those three departments. The administration, the finance department, and the shareholding or partners are the dominant units. The growth of a business however depends on the attitude and sense of direction given by the leadership structures. Good structures will yield good results while limited policies will only limit the prospective growth of the company. It is therefore important to watch out for these indicators to gauge the point of caution to take.

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