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Product Life Cycle

Sony Corporation is a Japanese multinational company headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. It is the fifth largest electronics corporation in the world. It is one of the leading manufactures of electronic products sold in the global market and primarily deals with electronic products and component parts. The company is a business unit that operates in six segments. This makes it one of the most comprehensive electronic companies in the world. Additionally, Sony is a semiconductor maker and is among the top twenty leading semiconductor makers in the world. The company offers a variety of products around the world that are of high quality.

One of the organization’s products that has reached its stage of maturity is PlayStation. PlayStation, which is abbreviated as PS, is one of the video generation games introduced to the market by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan. In 1994, Sony launched the product to compete with other electronic entertainment companies’ products in the global market. As stated, this product was introduced in the market in 1994, but it became successful in 2000. The first stage, which involved product introduction in the market focused on intense marketing effort, designed to clearly identify and promote public awareness. After the introduction of this product to the market, many consumers became more interested in PlayStation. This contributed to the growth of the company, as many customers became interested in PlayStation. In addition, sales increased, as did other competing products in the market. The product however became one of the most profitable products of Sony.

The company decided to redesign PlayStation into a new, refined product, which became commonly known as PlayStation 2. It is much the same as PS, but was only developed and designed in order to attract many customers and compete favorably in the international market. It became the most successful video game at the time. PlayStation was developed into portable games in the market by the year 2005. The company decided to produce another new brand by redesigning PlayStation 2 into another new product, which became known as PlayStation 3. It was released in 2006 in the market as an accessory that allows players to control video games by use of motion controllers.

PlayStation reached the maturity level when the product reached its saturation within the market. Some consumers of PlayStation at this stage began leaving the market. This contributed to poor profit margins and the Sony Company decided to seek ways of restoring the market share of the product. The company attempted to differentiate this product, its brand and trademarks in order to overcome competitors. Sony used this technique of product differentiation to overcome price wars and intense competition in the market. In 2010, Sony Company announced that it was removing the Linux functionality from the third generation of PlayStation, PS3 (Wikinvest, 2010).

The maturity stage of PlayStation was one of the hardest stages in the product cycle to operate in because this is the point where many competitors began to sell their products. In this stage, the product supply is usually normal but many sellers move to bandwagon when they have made enough profits from the previous sales. This factor led to the stabilization of sales, which led Sony Company to introduce differentiated products into the market in order to maintain sales. They decided to design PlayStation 3 so as not to lose their market share for the product. The reason why many customers enter the market at the maturity stage is due to occurrence of price war and intense competition. The market becomes saturated forcing the big players to leave the market. This is when their products are no longer worthy, and competitors’ products become more available, thus resulting in poor profits made. The margin per unit becomes low compared to the efforts made in marketing the product.

The available financial resource assessment for PlayStation in Japan, which privately promotes global investment, can be reviewed in the following ways. First, the Sony Computer Entertainment Company together with its subsidiary markets distributes PlayStations. The company manages a third of licensing programs. It offers its products within the home country (Japan) and the international market. Sony Company was expected to lose its financial and total revenue of about 260 billion yen, which is approximated at $3.2 billion, in the financial year of 2011 due to the problems arising from the earthquake in Japan (Bloogberg.com, 2011). The projection for the 2011 financial year has not yet been indicated anywhere but in October 2010, Sony was ranked among the leading electronic manufactures in the world. Japan is still struggling to hold back further loss caused by the horrific earthquake, tsunami and nuclear crisis. Pension funds and other institutional investors can play a vital role in investing in the company in order to help them rebuild the economy. Japan needs to enlist the private sector given the stiff financial situation, which would improve their product life cycle (Saaksvuori and Immonen, 2003).

In addition, the Japanese government seems to command great financial resources through taxation and borrowing, together with its monetary policy powers. The current financial year is the third consecutive whereby the public sector’s financing provides more of the company’s resources than revenue does, as a way of investing in the company. This is mostly done by the Japanese government in order to promote infrastructure and assist many companies operate smoothly. This will encourage even investors from around the world to invest in the company thus helping it perform better. The long-term interest rates of the government bonds have fallen drastically by about 1.4 percent, and the annual interest payments continue to rise due to the outstanding debt, which also increased. This has not only helped Sony but other companies as well.

One of Sony’s optimal financing sources is Sony Life Insurance Company, which is a private organization of the Sony Group. Sony Life Insurance is a private organization of the Japanese insurance company that was founded in 1979 with its headquarters located in Tokyo. The Sony Insurance Company is appropriate because it will enable the company’s products be insured against any risks such as earthquakes or tsunami. Thus, the company will be able to continue with their daily operation of the business as they will be compensated against any loss or damage caused by the severe crisis. Sony established its financial services in Japan from the year 2004, which included the Sony Banking System and Sony Life Insurance Company. Sony Company has benefited from Sony Life Insurance Company as it has been one of the most profitable segments, with an operating margin of 13 percent. Sony Life Insurance Company enables Sony protect its products, including PlayStations, against any damage through compensation.

The available bilateral financial sources outside Japan that promote global investment include the Department for International Development (DFID) and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs-Global Opportunities Fund, both of which are found in the United Kingdom. These are the two bilateral development cooperation agencies that give financial support to Japan companies in order to promote better performance in industries thereby becoming competitive in the global market. Throughout the product cycle of Sony’s products, the company can benefit from the bilateral financial sources in order to help them improve on any issues that may arise. Mostly when products have reached the maturity level, they begin to decline in profitability due to decline of sales. Thus, with help from such bilateral financing sources, companies can be able to create brand equity thus creating more market for their products (Saaksvuori and Immonen, 2003).

Additionally, multilateral financial sources outside the home country (Japan) that can promote global investment include the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) and European Investment Bank (EIB). These are among the multilateral financial institutions that can promote global investment. These banks can invest some resources in Sony Company in order to enable it get enough resources for creating products that are competitive in the international market. Most of the multilateral institutions, especially the World Bank, help many private sectors across the boarders improve their business. They provide them with financial support in order to enable them meet the demanding needs of the company including production of innovative products that are of high quality. This enables the company compete favorably with other players in the industry across the world.

As touched on, one of the optimal financing sources for Sony’s PlayStation is the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Bank (World Bank). This multilateral company is located in many places in the world. In Japan, it is has its offices in Tokyo. The World Bank has helped many businesses in both private and public sectors. This is the most favorable financial source appropriate for PlayStation. It is appropriate for the company because World Bank provides diverse cooperation and supportive services to companies that have been affected by any crisis or which may want to develop further in their business. In addition, it is an appropriate bank because it helps companies that may have a problem due to the financial crisis. The bank helps organizations develop in their business because through their financial assistance, they can be able to create and design products that can be accepted in the global market.

The two foreign markets for this mature product, PlayStation 3, include the United States and Europe. These two foreign markets are among the geographical regions where the sales for PlayStations are relatively high when compared to other geographical locations. The possibility of extending this product’s life cycle in the selected markets is high. First, these selected markets may have many consumers of this product thus creating a need for extending the products to these areas. Secondly, it seems that these two markets have high-income level earners, who are the highest consumer of the product. This makes it possible for the product life cycle to produce high profits due to high sales. This product has been highly competitive in the United States and Europe unlike in the home country – Japan – since 2005.

In conclusion, PlayStation is one of  Sony Company’s products that have reached the maturity level. The maturity stage of PlayStation was one of the hardest product stages to operate in because it saw other competitors penetrate the market. One of the optimal financing sources of the company is Sony Life Insurance Company, which is a private organization of Sony Group. This financial source played a vital role in the product cycle of Sony Company. Additionally, there are available bilateral and multilateral financial sources that have contributed to better performance of Sony’s products. One of them is the World Bank, which is a multilateral bank. This bank provides supportive services to Sony in order to enable the company meet its demanding needs. Lastly, mature products of Sony are mostly sold to European and United States markets because of high consumer demands in these two areas.

 

 

 

 

Reference

Bloogberg.com (August 23, 2011). ‘Sony Computer Entertainment Inc.’ Bloomberg Business

week. Retrieved on August 23, 2011 from http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=2524001

Wikinvest (2010). Business Segments. Retrieved on August 23, 2011 from

http://www.wikinvest.com/stock/Sony_%28SNE%29

Saaksvuori, A., & Immonen, A. (2003). Product life cycle management. Berlin: Springer.

Stark, J. (2007). Global product: Strategy, product lifecycle management and the billion

            customer question. London: Springer.

 

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Advanced American Lit WA4

            David Mamet uses the interwoven themes of alienation, marginalization and assimilation in different ways. First, he uses the theme of alienation to analyze himself. He provides an overview of the way he felt isolated from the American society while he was studying in New York City. His studying method made him become aware of the language people use, and how it determines the way people behave. The author in his plays and films uses the “MametSpeak” (Mamet 1947) language, which has been described as one of the perfect words used in his work. In Glengarry Glen Ross, Mamet tries to bring out the theme of marginalization through giving an example of a desperate man who tried to keep his job in a profession that did not fit him. In addition, he uses assimilation through the selling business as a metaphor of the condition in the American society. For the people working in offices, the end of their careers necessitates a new search for identity in the world, which has no space for them.

Toni Morrison uses the theme of alienation to reveal a recurring feature during her adult life. She is an African-American author who is different from the African norm since her values are somehow more advanced than the norm. In the Recitatif, Morrison reveals the theme of assimilation through fusing the minority group, which is women, with the dominant society. She tries to explore women’s responsibilities through shaping their consciousness. She interwove the theme of marginalization by narrating the story about two-childhood friends, one who is an American and the other an African-American as they move through the civil rights period. Even though she does not reveal which woman belongs to what certain race, the reader can tell the way marginalization, especially during this period, led to forced assimilation (Morrison 1931). This led to the infringement of rights for many African-Americans

Thomas Pynchon walker uses the interwoven themes of alienation, marginalization and alienation to bring out the search for identity. First, the author brings out the theme of alienation whereby he first tries to hide his identity as a famous man: “he does not want to be famous” (Pynchon 1937). Little is known about him because of his insistence in remaining private. Through his silence and through his lack of pride despite being a famous man, he portrays the theme of alienation. In addition, in his short story known as the Entropy, he uses the marginalization theme through this nonlinear narrative that reflects on the nature of being an American. His fiction work brings out the assimilation theme whereby he writes, “soldier’s crash Meatball’s party” (Pynchon 1937) which ends up making the communist join in the fun.

Maxine Hong Kingston brings out the alienation theme through her struggle to balance her parents’ cultural values to those of the rest of America. She is a Chinese immigrant and through her struggle to balance the American values to her own values, she indicates the search for identity. She brings out the theme of marginalization though revealing challenges for Chinese-Americans living in a country where diverse cultures exist. In Tripmaster Monkey, she brings out the marginalization theme especially in the social process of being an American (Hong Kingston 1940). She portrays the marginalization of the lower class people and the experience of people especially the Chinese, in a marginalized community. The author tries to assimilate the American culture though encouraging her family and the Chinese friends to adapt the attitude and customs of the American culture. Thus, her book has been described as influential because she strives to create literature based on complicated issues that may create discomfort in the readers.

Work cited

Hong Kingston, Maxine. Search for identity. 1940. Web.

<http://www.learner.org/amerpass/unit16/authors-6.html>

Mamet, David. Search for identity. 1947. Web. August 22, 2011

<http://www.learner.org/amerpass/unit16/authors-7.html>

Morrison, Tony. Search for identity. 1931. Web. August 22, 2011

<http://www.learner.org/amerpass/unit16/authors-8.html>

Pynchon, Thomas. Search for identity. 1937. Web.

<http://www.learner.org/amerpass/unit16/authors-9.html>

 

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Aesthetic differences between two strands of modernism and historical and social events that influenced art between the world wars

Modernism fostered a period of experimentation in the arts between the two world wars. This period was characterized by high rates of industrialization, extreme social change, development and advancements in science and social science (Frost 89). Thus, because of these developments, the modernists experienced growing alienation, as they were incompatible with Victorian morality, optimism, and convention.

The impulse of the modernist was enhanced by various literatures that depicted industrialization and urbanization through the search for authentic response to a changed world. For instance, Eliot’s poem “The Waste land” is a good example of modern life by the author. Here, Greenland has been referred to as a province of the WasteLand (Eliot 120). One can see that the historical and social events that influenced art between the world wars include social movements such as feminism, socialism, and communism. These events engaged artistic expressions such as visual art, dance, theater, fiction, poetry and music. During this period, artists continuously laid their foundation on the intrinsic qualities of the medium such as line, color and form, hence moving away from the traditional notion of the arts. As a result, during wars these tendencies were spread worldwide leading to full utilization of simple, geometric shapes.

 

Expatriate writers and migrant writers

Steinbeck as an expatriate writer was born in America, in Salinas, California in 1902. His work was extremely influenced by his political experiences. In particular the ‘The Grapes of Wrath”, was a portrayal of the downside of capitalism and his own unique version of the historical events that surrounded the “Dust bowl” emigrations in the mid 1930s. Steinbeck wrote about America in a negative light, particularly the way the migrants were being treated in their new land (Steinbeck 56). For instance, in the book, the writer employed ordinary folk during the depression period as a way of reflecting his social consciousness displaying the struggles of the rural workers. His writings led to improvement of the migrant camps and better working conditions for migrants in the United States. Steinbeck interpreted the inhuman living conditions among migrating “Okies” which later caught the attention of Roosevelt making him take a step in challenging the congress to review labor laws.

Migrant writer Carlos Bulosan “Be American” focused his ideas on the racism nature of the Americans. The writer was an Asian American who put his attention on the portraying a particular message of shedding more light on the idea of bias and prejudice toward Asians in the land of the free. Bulosan`s ideas were that Asians were only allowed to act as Americans rather than becoming Americans since this would be viewed as prolonging the political traditional designation of them as inassimilable aliens (Bulosan 67). In this book, Bulosan shows that names of a place were a clear indication of the limits of early Filipino immigrant world. He showed the impacts of nature, political, and economical struggles experienced by the immigrants. For instance, the immigrants lacked citizenship, experienced high rates of unemployment, and frequent violence directed to them, which led them to the state of dispossession.

The views of these writers were similar in that they all portrayed the negative side of the Americans on the migrants. For instance, both Steinbeck and Bulosan showed the hardship of the black Americans went though under the white Americans. However, Bulosan`s views were mainly focused on the effects of racism on the immigrants in particular the Asian Americans , while Steinbeck’s views focused on the general lives of all the non Americans.

Works Cited

Bulosan, Carlos. Bulosan: an introduction with selections. Michigan, MA:  University of Michigan, 2008.

Eliot, Thomas. The Waste Land. New York, NY: InfoBase Publishing, 2007.

Frost, Robert. Stopping By Woods on a Snowy Evening. New York, NY: Diane Pub Co, 2004.

Steinbeck, John. The grapes of wrath. Chicago, LA: Penguin Books, 2000.

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Kathryn Barbour

Introduction

The book, ‘Reclaiming the sky: 9/11 and the untold story of the men and women who kept America flying’ by Tom Aloysius Murphy follows the experiences of various aviation personnel whose heroism during September, 11, 2001 was evident. The author discusses the professional as well as personal experiences of the cabin crew that included Kathryn Barbour during the fateful day. The aviation experiences during September 11 are expounded as memories of heroes and casualties in the aviation industry are celebrated (Murphy, 2007). This paper shall give a detailed discussion of the character, Kathryn Barbour, her positions and career field as depicted in the book.

Life and Career of Kathryn Barbour

Kathryn Barbour was brought up in Indiana, Cincinnati airport, near Ohio River where she grew up watching airplanes land in the airport hence wished to be in the aviation. As a result, she trained in 1976 and joined the Washington D. C base and put on her first trip immediately.  She admits that the aviation caught her attention due to its quality and demanding life, which she liked doing.  The practice demands great attention but also offers great adventure for the aviation attendants when they are free. She explores new places which add more thrill to her life, satisfied that her dream has come true. On this note, Kathryn Barbour asserts that “I can’t tell you how many times I’ve gotten to a new place, hopped a bus, and headed out to explore the local attractions. That’s what I’ve wanted to do, ever since I was a young girl in my backyard watching planes. I wanted to visit new places and experience something new and surprising every day” (Murphy, 2007 p.38).

The American airline attendants have formed close friendships that prompts them not only to be self-sufficient but also to rely on each other as a team. This offered Catherine a strong instinct to trust her fellows and contact them whenever there was a need to do so (Murphy, 2007 p.39). Her strong instincts drove her to always talk with the captain prior to departure. However, their busy schedules had challenges as well, fatigue being one of them and some like Kathryn Barbour would anticipate to be off from work, relax alone at home while doing some gardening.

The 25 years old Kathryn Barbour, a veteran American airlines flight attendant boarded a sudden trip prior to the fateful September 11 and booked a less comfortable hotel near LAX rather than the one she was used to Marina del Ray but she remained positive. Flight 76 left LAX at 8.30 am on September 10 and she appreciated the early flight since she would not be inconvenienced to return to Dulles at least by four thirty do her gardening.  As she returned from los angles to Dulles on September 10 and got ready for landing, she and other attendants collected trays and rubbish along the isle.

That day, she talked to Captain Charles Burlingame commonly referred to as Chic who was with the flight and planning to have his birthday celebrated in LA (Murphy, 2007). Chic loved to fly and had a strong sense of time since he had been trained at Naval Tactical Warfare and Strategic Air Command School, Annapolis. He was strict regarding safety and had strong instincts that helped him to evade various fatal crashes that have shaped him. Notably, he was aware of fate and risks involved when one is uncertain but tried his level best to ensure that the risks were minimal. On the eve of September 11, Chic was supposed to fly back to LA to celebrate his birthday with his brother at California Angels game close to, Orange Country where he was born. He possessed baseball tickets to play in LA and advised his wife, also a flight attendant in the American airlines not to fly with him but to wait for him in Washington where he would meet him afterwards (Murphy, 2007).

The fateful 9/11

On the eve of September 11, Charles Burlingame as the captain took Flight 77 from Dulles to LA at 8.20 a.m. The flight’s mysterious disappearance astonished many as it flew off-course severally and could not be traced since the transponder was off and could not respond to calls from Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) tower. The FAA failed to alert the North American aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) to assign fighter jets to trace the flight (Murphy, 2007). During this time, American airlines Flight 11 hit the WTC North Tower while flight 77 headed to Washington flying at 400 miles/hr. It is however suspected that the plane had been hijacked and turned east. At 9.33, it headed towards the Pentagon and hit it from the west at 9.38 and crashed killing the passengers, hijackers and attendants on board including Captain Charles Burlingame and others who were inside the Pentagon. Luckily, Kathryn Barbour escaped death from the crash of Flight 77 (Murphy, 2007).

The role of Flight Attendants as Reflected by Kathryn Barbour

‘Flight attendant’ is a term often associated with glamour, beauty, adventure and interaction with celebrities. It involves being presentable, professional and creating a good impression for passengers aboard, for the purpose of attracting them to the airline in their future travels (Gazdik, 2005).  This was the dream career of Kathryn Barbour which she desired since she was a small girl and as she watched the planes landing from her home. Management strategy aims to formulate and implement and evaluate decisions that are essential for accomplishment of set goals. Being a cabin crew and a veteran, Kathryn Barbour was aware of how to handle her work and challenges that added up to the overall welfare and safety of those aboard as well as that of the American airlines as an organization to meet its objectives.

Being a flight attendant is a position eyed by most women since it offers a chance to interact with people from all walks of life and adventure in various parts of the world. All the same, like Kathryn Barbour maintains, the position demands extra efforts, patience as well as training to facilitate safety and comfort of the passengers on board. Of importance, training has to entail emergency training, security details as well as effective interactions with people (Kanki et al., 2010). As depicted by Kathryn Barbour, flight attendants have to persevere extensive working hours, stress, delays, time among other challenges such as fears of hijacking and plane crash.

Kathryn Barbour reflects a perfect personality that flight attendants should acquire or cultivate. They have to be patient and be pleasant to passengers to cope with depressing situations while on board. One has to have an empathetic character complimented by self-motivation, be able to work as a team and deal with stressful emergency scenarios. Having to deal with odd and extensive working hours during nights and holidays and being far from home to stay in hotels, some of which are not very comfortable, are some of the challenges that are to be expected in the industry. Attendants have to be ready to relocate to be near their home base and endure the strenuous working environment they are constantly subjected to. They are exposed to various injuries and illnesses due to uneven sleep and eating habits, standing for long, recycled air, pressure and distressing passengers.  Irrespective of all these, they not only have to remain efficient but also pleasant to the passengers. Flight attendants like Kathryn Barbour possess a spirit of self-sacrifice and are always willing to undertake risks for the sake of passengers’ security, safety and comfort (Gazdik, 2005).

Strategy during Emergency Situations

 During emergencies, flight attendants have to try their level best to ensure the safety of the passengers by acting offensively to hijackers rather than following their commands. In such cases, they should try to find help by contacting their families and officials concerned to inform them of any security need to be met (Gazdik, 2005). In such cases, they should also try to calm the tense and risky situations created by the hijackers. In case an emergency landing or evacuation commands are called for, they should be in a position to advice the passengers how to do it by offering emergency briefings for instance by directing them to adjust to brace position and put on a lifevest in case of  an impeding crash. Besides, the attendant can pursue negotiations with hijackers to prevent an impeding crash while at the same time, reassuring the passengers of their safety since that is their chief role. Prior to take off, the flight attendants should monitor the cabin as part of Pre Take off Service and keep monitoring to detect any strange aspect that should be attended to with immediate effect for the security of the cabin. They should also be in a position to attend to anyone in need of first aid (Kanki et al., 2010).

Conclusion

Kathryn Barbour can be celebrated as a true hero who remained faithful to her dream vocation. She depicts the lonely and strenuous life of flight attendants that cannot exclude self-sacrifice. Flight attendants experience traumatizing and anxious situation prior to an impeding crash, bad weather or hijacking but they have to remain positive for the sake of the passengers while reassuring them of their safety, even when their chance of survival is minimal. Security, safety and comfort of passengers are paramount and flight attendants pursue everything within their power to ensure that this is accomplished. However, along with the vocation comes the cultivation of a great personality, bravery, flexibility, genuine care, appreciation, patience and strong instincts to perform efficiently in the profession. Additionally, along with the practice comes a lifestyle full of various positive aspects such as adventuring the world, social interactions and satisfaction when passengers’ needs are met successfully. Kathryn Barbour reflects the true spirit of a hero in the aviation industry to be emulated and celebrated by the entire world.

 

References

Gazdik, M. (2005).Vault Guide to Flight Attendant Carrers. New York: Vault Inc.

Kanki, B. G., Helmreich, R. L., & Anca, J. M. (2010). Crew Resource Management. San Diego,   CA: Academic Press.

Murphy, T. A. (2007). Reclaiming The Sky: 9/11 And The Untold Story Of The Men And Women   Who Kept America Flying. New York:  AMACOM Division of American Management            Association.

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Consumer Behavior

            The article by Perner titled ‘The Marketing Mix: Product’, talks about the marketing mix of a product. The article begins by defining three forms in which products come in, namely convenience goods, shopping goods and specialty goods. Convenience goods are goods which consumers put minimal shopping efforts in. Shopping goods are the opposite of convenience goods and are those which consumers invest a great deal of effort and time in. The third form of consumer goods is specialty goods, which are the types of goods in which only a small segment of the consumer base are interested in. Depending on the product, which includes services, the marketing decisions are made. The article also discusses how to develop a new product and the stages involved in the process. The product life cycle is also discussed in the article and it highlights the introduction stage, the growth of the product, the maturity stage and the decline stage of the product (Perner, 2011).

Diffusion of innovation is also discussed in the article. It is described as the process in which new products, ideas or practices spread into the market among the people. The process of adoption of innovations is also discussed beginning with the process of introduction t, saturation and then expiration. Additionally, the process of cumulative adoption is discussed in the paper and is represented graphically by an S-shaped curve. Different types of innovation and the forces that work for and against it are also discussed in the article. A few examples of adoption of innovations are also highlighted. Factors that influence the speed of innovation are also discussed at length in the article some of them being modernity, homophily, opinion leadership and physical distance. Brands, co-branding, and branding are also discussed in the article. The article concludes by discussing the product-service continuum.

I chose the article due to the topic it discussed. I believe that in my marketing class, one of the most important things to understand is consumer behavior and more specifically the branch of consumer behavior that deals with product marketing. This is because products, which include both tangible products and services, are the core reason why businesses thrive. Without understanding the best practices to follow to market one’s products, the returns or the sales that one shall make shall not be the maximum possible therefore the income shall be minimal. Moreover, without understanding the consumer behavior in terms of marketing a business may invest a lot in marketing but use the wrong procedure. This therefore leads to overuse of resources that do not bring returns, rather losses. Therefore, I believe that understanding a product, in terms of marketing it in relation to capturing the most consumers possible, is the most important venture of any business (Lantos, 2010).

For any business, it is also crucial to have the knowledge of the product life cycle. This is because for one to survive in the market, depending on the product that one deals in, one needs to be aware of how long the product shall take to mature, reach saturation and then get to the decline stage. This is for the purpose of planning and laying down strategies on the introduction of new products or formulating new strategies that shall lengthen the life of the product in the market. The new product development knowledge is also important to me as after college, I plan to become self employed and become an entrepreneur. I shall need knowledge on how a product develops, as I shall be establishing a new product in the information technology industry. I shall need to know the stages a product goes through in its introduction and the strategies required to make it survive in the market long enough for it to become a strong product and to become a respected brand. As it will be a new product, the knowledge of how the diffusion of innovation works and how new innovations are adopted over time shall be crucial to me. I shall need to understand my product, where it fits in the market, which people to target as my customers and several other factors that are highlighted in the article.

The article has added vast knowledge in me as an aspiring entrepreneur and as a marketing student. Through it, I have learnt the three main types of goods and their differences. Convenience goods have a low priority on the consumer’s shopping list or budget and to market them, they need to have brand names that are well known. This is to attract the customers and to increase sales of one’s product. There are often many products of the same kind that serve the same purpose therefore the brand name is what influences the consumer in choosing one brand over the other. Shopping goods are mainly necessities and are high up on the priority scale of the consumer’s budget. This means that they are bought regularly, as they are necessary. This also means that the strategies employed to market them are different from those employed to market other product types (Perner, 2011). This is to ensure that the product captures a large consumer base. Specialty goods capture the interest of a few people in the market therefore to deal with them, one needs to identify a specific market. These products are like industrial goods that are unique to different professions or fields like engineering.

I also learnt about the product line and the product mix. A product line is the different products that a firm deals in or holds. For instance, a company like Apple deals in computers, software, phones and other products. This is their product line. On the other hand, the product mix is the combined product lines that the firm holds. For instance, Apple Inc., which deals with computers, makes different computers for the normal consumer, for the government, and for industrial use.

The product mix can further be classified as narrow or deep. A narrow product mix is in the case where a company deals in only one product but produces it to a vast number of uses. A wide product mix on the other hand refers to where a company like Apple makes a vast assortment of goods related to each other. Depth in the product line is a term used to define the extent of variety offered within a single product line. I was also able to learn that there are very many differences in products, especially in terms of quality. Some products may be more superior in quality than others. Some products differ in style though they are of the same nature. Products can also be differentiated in terms of which ones offer the best service after sale. For instance, very few car companies offer tow services anywhere like Volvo does. New product development was another area I learnt about that was very crucial to my marketing class and to my future venture. The stages of the development of a new product start from the development strategy of the product.

The strategy a firm chooses to put in place for the new product will differ depending on the type of product and the type of firm. Some firms have holders of their stock preferring not to have a high risk and minimize new innovations. On the other hand some firms are bound by their nature to develop new innovations frequently as other developers work around their patents and develop the products at cheaper costs. The next step is the generation of ideas. This stage involves the laying of strategies as to which new product the firm can come up with. A vast number of ideas are welcomed from employees, customers, investors and consultants and the firm only invests in the ideas that seem most plausible. The evaluation and screening stage follows where the firm, after a critical analysis, eliminates the products that prove not to be feasible (Lantos, 2010).

A business analysis then follows. Here, the firm exposes the ideas to rigorous analysis and consideration of key aspects of the market like the risks, the market size, the profit projections and the competitive response is done. If the aspects prove to be promising, a research of the market is done. The development stage then follows, which is where the product is designed and a plan of the manufacturing facilities is done. The market testing stage then follows. Most firms approach this stage by testing the product in a certain region before launching a nationwide or worldwide campaign. If the product performs well in the pilot region it is employed gradually to a greater geographic area while exercising different prices to test the market. This reduces the risk of the company to run losses as the demand of the product shall build itself up gradually. The commercialization of the product is usually the last stage of the new product development and it is where the product gets market consent for fully fledged production on a large scale. A national and possibly worldwide marketing campaign is set up by the firm along with a distribution effort.

I also learnt about the product life cycle. This describes the life of the product after the commercialization stage has been completed and the product hits the market.

 

The Product Life Cycle. Retrieved from <http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/intro_Product.html>

When the product is introduced, it is usually expensive and there is little knowledge about it in the market. Therefore, the sales are limited. The products then reach the growth phase and the sales increase drastically. At this stage many more firms enter the market with similar products. The product then reaches a maturity stage where there is very little growth. Other products also enter a further decline stage which is usually due to the product being replaced by a better or more advanced version of the product. The product life cycle is directly related to the diffusion of innovation phenomenon. Firms are advised to develop new marketing strategies or modify the ones in place in order to lengthen the product life cycle and ensure that as much profit is earned from the venture as possible.

Works Cited

Perner, Lars. The Marketing Mix: Product. USC Marshall, 2011.

Lantos, Geoffrey Paul. Consumer Behavior in Action: Real-Life Applications for Marketing Managers. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2010. Print.

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Constitution

The First Amendment of the constitution of the United States is concerned with religious freedom and the right of speech. It states:

“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievance” (American Constitution)

This amendment stresses several rights accorded to the country’s citizens. People have the right to worship freely, speak freely, assemble, and raise their grievances. The amendment is especially important to the media because it guarantees their freedom. The First Amendment has brought about some of the most controversial issues in the constitution. This is especially in concern with separation of religion and state, people’s right to speak freely and the media’s right to protect their sources of information.

Journalists and other reporters have often been hard pressed to reveal their sources of information. They have sometimes suffered, as they have had to fight legal battles so that they can protect their sources. The Shield Law is aimed at protecting journalists from revealing where they get confidential information. Cases concerning the rights of journalists to conceal their sources of information have not made the matter clear. The First Amendment clearly accords people the right of speech. It is however not clear to what extent the press is protected. Reporters are ordinary citizens and they are often required to testify in the courts when they witness criminal activities taking place. The issue is however different in civil proceedings.

In 2005, a New York Times reporter, Judith Miller, spent time in jail for refusing to reveal her source of information. When preparing for a newspaper article, Miller had noted the name of one of the CIA operatives, Valerie Plame, but she had written the second name as Flame. The controversy arose because it was not clear whether Miller got the name from an insider source in the government. The issue was especially sensitive since there were many critics at the time who were opposed to the war in Iraq. Miller revealed her source of information after she had spent time in jail. It was then that she informed the grand jury that she had obtained her information from I. Lewis Libby, who was the vice president’s chief of staff. Revealing sources of information is more of an ethical issue and it concerns an agreement between the reporter and their source. Most critics argue that although the First Amendment gives reporters the right to seek information, it does not protect them from revealing their sources.

In addition, there is much contention concerning the church and the state. The First Amendment is not only concerned with the church, mostly associated with the Christians, but it also includes other religions as well. Some of the cases involving religious freedom, or lack of it, and the state include the saying of prayers in schools and other public places, denoting symbols related to religion and the wordings in the pledge of allegiance among others. Roy Moore, the chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court, was sued for displaying the Ten Commandments in his courthouse. The first lawsuit was filed in 1995 but it was dismissed due to technical reasons. The Ten Commandments are usually associated with the Jewish and the Christian religions. According to the First Amendment, the government is not supposed to endorse any religion. In November 2002, the Federal U.S. District Judge ruled that Justice Moore was in violation of the First Amendment. This was especially a sensitive issue since it related to matters of justice. Some people interpreted it to mean that the court would favor one religion over the rest and thus justice would not be upheld.

The Second Amendment to the constitution on the other hand states:

“A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed” (American Constitution).

This amendment gives individuals the legal basis to have firearms in their possession, as long as they have the right certification to do so. It not only includes the military and other armed forces, but it also includes the civilians. It is a controversial amendment for two reasons. First, it does not specify whether everybody has a right to own a firearm. Secondly, it does not specify which arms are acceptable. In the case District of Columbia v. Heller, it was a decision of the law that the Second Amendment provides individuals with this statute in order to give them a legal way to defend themselves in cases where it is necessary to use a firearm.

The District of Columbia has strict laws concerning the possession of firearms. The law only allows people to carry registered firearms and it does not allow the registration of handguns. Dick Heller was a police officer who had applied to register a handgun he intended to keep in his home. He was denied this chance and he sought legal redress. The Federal District Court dismissed the case but it was appealed in the D. C. Circuit. The Circuit ruled in Heller’s favor, arguing that the state’s law concerning firearms, especially the handgun rule, was in violation to the Second Amendment. The case was argued in March 2008 and it was decided in June the same year. The Second Amendment is especially controversial because of the issue of gun control. Some people are of the idea that the amendment was meant for the military and not other individuals. It is their assertion that individuals do not have the right and responsibility to bear arms, since not all people can know how to control or regulate their use. Some contend this, asserting that people have a legal right to protect themselves and their homes.

Although the first amendment guarantees the right of speech, freedom of the press and religious freedom, this does not mean that everything is allowed. People are free to say whatever they want to say, but everything has consequences. The constitution gives people the right to belong to whichever religion they choose. This has had both negative and positive consequences. Some religions advocate violence. In one case, followers of a certain religion committed suicide after a request from their leader. In the same manner, when individuals are allowed to bear arms, it can be one way of inciting and promoting violence. There is a danger that people will take the law into their own hands in the name of self-defense. A person who perceives that he or she is in danger will choose to use the available weapon instead of asking for help or informing the authorities. Gun violence is already a serious issue in the country, especially in places where there are many gangs and there is a high rate of crime.

It is necessary for the government to control how the guns are issued and how they are used. Although gun ownership is important in some aspects, it can be dangerous and comes with a lot of responsibility. Before an individual is issued with a gun, he or she should have received the necessary training required. The military and the law enforcers receive training before they are issued with the arms and it is only reasonable that the same case applies to individuals who are issued with guns. The person should be in a stable mental state and should not use the weapon out of anger. Some people do not know how to control their anger and they can quickly pull out a firearm as a way of resolving their problems. The government should take every precaution to ensure that it can trace all the arms issued and licensed to different people.

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CURRICULUM VITAE

NAME:                                 Guixiu Xu                                            PREFER NAME: Christina

 

ADDRESS:                          15 Craigbank Avenue, New Lynn, Auckland. New Zealand

 

CELLPHONE:                    021839488

 

EMAIL:                               xuguixiu@live.cn

 

DATE OF BIRTH:             24.11.89

 

QUALIFICATIONS

2009–Present                         AUCKLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY (NEW ZEALAND)

Bachelor of International Hospitality Management

 

2008–2009                            TAYLORS COLLEGE (NEW ZEALAND)

                                              Certificate in International Foundation Certificate

 

WORK EXPERIENCE

Nov 2010–Mar 2011             CHINATOWN, AUCKLANDNEW ZEALAND

Worked in a telephone shop in different capacities

Introduced different phone models to the clients

Worked as a salesperson and solved customers problems

Aug 2009–2010                     DOMINION RD COFFEE SHOP

I undertook different roles in the coffee shop.

Sold coffee and other snacks to the students

Carried out additional tasks as requested by management

Mar 2008–May 2009             MOMO TEA CHINESE RESTAURANT

Served the clients and fulfilled their requests

Made sure the other staff performed their duties effectively

Ensured cleanliness and order in the restaurant

Motivated other members of staff through teambuilding activities

 

INTERESTS                        Traveling, Theatre, Socializing, Sports

 

REFERENCES:

                        Ivan Chen                                                                  Jimmy Xu

HR Manager                                                              Manager

262TiRakauDriveChinaTown                               72 Mokoia RdBirkenhead

Auckland. New Zealand                                             AucklandNew Zealand

Phone: 021450360                                                       Phone: 0210348271

 

COVER LETTER

10^th August 2011                                                                                        15 Craigbank Avenue

New Lynn

Auckland

Mr. Liam Craughwell

Amora Hotel, Wellington

P. O. Box 1843

Wellington

 

Dear Mr Craughwell

 

I am writing to apply for the position of ‘Duty Manager’ as advertised on 15^th July 2011 in SEEK, Australia’s job site.

As my CV indicates, I am currently undertaking a bachelor’s degree in International Hospitality Management. This has enabled me to gain more knowledge concerning the industry and has equipped me with the skills and knowledge needed for this industry. I have a lot of experience as I have worked in different capacities such as waiting tables and supervising the other staff. My time working as a waitress was very beneficial as I have learnt a lot especially in the area of time management and knowing how to manage difficult clients well. I worked in a very busy restaurant and with people of different cultural backgrounds. I was promoted to a head waitress, meaning that I was in charge of the other waitresses. This enhanced my supervisory skills and I learnt how to manage different kinds of people and how to act quickly in cases of emergency. I also handle front office operations effectively and am a good organizer. I developed these skills when I worked in a telephone shop and during my time working at the campus’ coffee shop.

 

I believe that I have what it takes to work in your reputable organisation. Although I have the necessary skills, I am well aware that working with you will enable me develop my skills further. I am always looking for an opportunity to learn, as I believe that learning has no limit. I am willing to learn new things since this industry depends on acquiring new ideas. I am ready to serve both the organisation and its clients.

 

Yours sincerely

 

Christina Guixiu Xu

10^th August 2011                                                                                        15 Craigbank Avenue

New Lynn

Auckland

Craig Rodgers

Executive Consultant

Bravo Hospitality

P O Box 1760

Shortland Street

Auckland 1140

 

Dear Mr. Rodgers

 

I am applying for the position of ‘Assistant Operations Coordinator–Venue and Catering Events’ advertised on the internet site SEEK on 5^th July 2011

 

I am a result-oriented individual who also works well in teams. I have worked as a waitress and I was later promoted to the position of head waitress. I therefore possess supervisory skills and I know that I can work well with other members of staff. Being an international hospitality management student, I possess the required knowledge and the necessary skills to work in this industry. I exercise diligence in whatever task I am assigned and am a hard worker. I am careful concerning the little details, as I believe that such details can make a lot of difference in ensuring customer satisfaction. Working in a Chinese restaurant and later a coffee shop has enhanced my knowledge in the hospitality industry. Working in the campus’ coffee shop requires me to come up with creative ideas to ensure that the students visit the shops and that the business continues to make profit. This has enhanced my creative abilities, as I am able to convince students to take coffee even during the hot summer season.

The events industry is one of the most competitive and rigorous industries in the market. It requires people who are ready to implement new and innovative ideas. It requires a person who knows the current trends in the market, and one who is able to come up with original ideas. I believe that I have the required skills and I am ready for the challenge.

 

Yours sincerely

 

Guixiu Xu

 

 

 

 

PRE-INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

A. Duty Manager

1. Tell me how your study experience will help you in the role

As an international hospitality management student, I have been exposed to different roles that one is expected to be familiar with in the industry. The course has prepared me for work in the field because it has incorporated practical lessons, where I have been exposed to different learning environment. The course is intensive and it requires one to be able to strategise and manage his or her time well. It incorporates different areas of hospitality management, which include organizational skills, basic accounting and managerial skills.

2. What in your personal life will make you successful in this?

I am a good organizer and some of my friends say that I am tough. I respect people and I expect the same kind of respect from them. I am passionate and diligent when carrying out tasks, ensuring that I complete them in the least possible time. I command respect by the way I carry myself and I get along with people. this has been beneficial to me since I have held many leadership roles.

3. Tell me about a time you experienced high pressure in your life – how did you cope – what did you learn?

I was working as a supervisor in a busy restaurant and the employees were on a glow slow. The restaurant is located in a busy part of town and I knew that if the clients did not get quality service, many of them would go to dine elsewhere. The senior management of the restaurant did not take employees’ complaints seriously and this was the reason for their go slow.  I was in a dilemma since the management expected me to deliver and the other employees expected me to supprt them. I had to act as a mediator between the employees and the management. I developed a communication system, where employees were able to raise their grievances. I talked to management and I told them the importance of addressing the employees concern. it was a long process but the management agreed to some of my proposals and they started responding to some of the concerns raised by the employees. I learnt the importance of communication and the value of treating others with respect irrespective of their position in the company.

4. How will you make up for your lack of experience in this area?

I am always ready and willing to learn. I will learn from the ones who have been in the company for a while since they have acquired a lot of experience in the industry. I will put extra effort in my work since there is so much I have to learn. I will report to work earlier than the others and I will use the few breaks to interact with the others so that they can teach me what they know. I will incorporate and introduce new and practical ideas to the company

5. Tell me about what you consider to be great communication.

Great communication requires active participation from all the parties involved. There should be no barriers and each of the parties should freely communicate. Great communication requires feedback. The parties involved should ensure that they respond to each other in good time.

 

B. Assistant Operations

1. What skills and values can you bring to this job?

I have acquired different skills while working in different volunteer programs in the events industry. I have learnt how to work with a limited budget while at the same time ensuring that I meet the client’s demand. I have learnt how to handle difficult clients and how to work under difficult circumstances in a professional manner. I know how to manage my time properly and how to strategise. I have built an impressive client base and I know reputable suppliers in the industry. I value all clients irrespective of who they are.

2. What makes you capable of effectively receiving and giving intense training?

I am a hard worker and one who is always ready to learn despite the circumstances. I am a top student and I learn very quickly. I am devoted and I commit myself to finish a project once I have completed it. I believe in sharing knowledge and I believe it is one of the best ways of ensuring progress. I take my time to explain issues and I know that this is fundamental in a training program.

3. How would you establish your authority in this high performance team?

I believe that respect is a fundamental aspect of any relationship. A person has to respect the people he or she is working with and this will guarantee the same respect is accorded to him. Doing this will ensure that other members will respect me. Knowledge is also important and I know that I have to show my knowledge of the industry. Using my knowledge to obtain success will make the other members realize my potential.

4. Tell me how you have got through periods of real “hard work”

Success cannot be achieved without sacrifice and hard work requires a person to sacrifice a lot. I got through a period of real hard work by sacrificing the time I had set aside for other less serious duties. I dedicated myself to complete the work I had and I did not have any time for fun until I finished it. I delegated some of the simpler duties I had and I concentrated on more challenging tasks.

5. How will you improve the profile of this organisation through this position?

I have built a sizeable number of clientele while working in different places. I will contribute to the organization by adding more clients and thus ensuring continuous business. I travel a lot and this will be beneficial to the company because I will introduce new venues. I know many suppliers who deal with different items and they are well known in the industry. I will ensure that the company gets the best deals the market has to offer. I will ensure that it becomes a pioneer in the industry.

References

Amos, J. A. (2003). Write a winning CV. United Kingdom: How To Books Ltd

Criscito, P. (2008). How to write better résumés and cover letters. Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Series

Lorenz, K. (2009). Answers to the 7 toughest interview questions. Retrieved from http://www.careerbuilder.ca/Article/CB-186-Interviewing-Answers-to-the-7-Toughest-Interview-Questions/

McGee, P. (2001). Write a great CV: Prepare a powerful CV that really works. United Kingdom: How To Books Ltd

Michael, P. (2007). How to answer 23 of the most common interview questions. Retrieved from http://www.wisebread.com/how-to-answer-23-of-the-most-common-interview-questions

Programmer World. (2009). 50 common interview questions and answers. Retrieved from http://faq.programmerworld.net/career/interview/50-common-interview-questions-and-answers.html

Schuman, N., & Nadler, J. B. (2010). The resume and cover letter phrase book: What to write to get the job that’s right. Avon, MA: Adams Media

Southam, K. (2011). Basic cover letter tips. Retrieved from http://career-advice.careerone.com.au/resume-cover-letter/cover-letter/how-to-write-a-cover-letter-20071204/article.aspx

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Behavioral Psychology

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select — doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” (John Watson as cited in Hergenhahn, 2008). This is a famous quote from one of the most highly acclaimed psychologists to have ever lived. This statement is based upon the subject of behavioral psychology. This theory states that behavioral patterns are dictated by the environment with which a person interacts. This interaction with a given environment is known as conditioning.

Behavioral psychology is a very fascinating subject because it tends to assume all the internal mental states of an individual and gives focus to ones behavioral patterns. The theory opposes the principal thought that persons perform best in areas in which they are gifted. Instead, the theory proposes that a person’s behavioral pattern is dictated by his interaction with the immediate environment. Conditioning occurs in two main types: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning is one of the most researched aspects of behavioral psychology (Cohen, McChargue, & Collins, 2003). Classical conditioning was first proposed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. In his proposal, Ivan Pavlov was of the idea that a learning process takes place when there is interaction between an environmental stimulus and a physical motivation. Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus in an approximate position in relation to an impulse (Cohen, McChargue, & Collins, 2003).

To defend his theory, Ivan Pavlov used a tone to represent a stimulus to the naturally occurring reflex of salivating in a dog. In the experiment, food was presented to the dog whenever the tone was turned on. Whenever the dog saw the food, the dog’s reflex was that of salivation. It was noted that the dog was salivating after hearing the tone even during moments when there was no food. At this time, the dog had associated the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus. The neutral stimulus is the tone whereas the environmental stimulus in this case is the provision of food. This explained why the dog went ahead to produce the salivation response on hearing the tone without the presentation of food (Quick, & Tetrick, 2003).

There are various basic principles that dictate the process, one of them being the unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus is one that spurs a reflex in free circumstances. This is depicted when an individual smells the sweet aroma of delicious food and saliva is unconditionally, naturally, and automatically produced, resulting in one ending up feeling hungry. In this instance, the sweet aroma of food is the unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned response on the other hand is the untutored reflex action in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus. In the above illustration, the feeling of hunger in response to the presentation of food is the unconditioned response.

The conditioned stimulus is a stimulus first occurring under neutral status but later becoming associated to an unconditioned stimulus. The stimulus later triggers a conditioned response. In the above example when a ringing bell precedes the sweet aroma, the unconditioned stimulus, in this case the ringing bell would later be associated with the presentation of food, thereby triggering hunger. Although the ringing bell is unrelated to the sweet aroma, multiple pairing of the two stimuli would lead the bell ring to triggering the conditioned response. The conditioned response on the other hand is the tutored reflex action to the neutral stimulus depicted above. In the given illustration, the hunger being felt and the salivation would be the conditioned responses to the sound of the bell ringing.

In reality, the responses do not occur like the one seen in Pavlov’s dogs. However, the idea of classical conditioning is used economically during dog training techniques. These techniques are not restricted to dogs only. In the medical field and specifically psychology, phobias and anxieties are mainly treated using these techniques. Teachers have been able to help students cope with phobias related to low performances in class. This is done by employing classical conditioning in creating a favorable environment in which the students feel comfortable, enabling them overcome their fears and anxieties. The teachers pair the favorable learning environment with a dreaded activity like presenting in front of a group. A favorable learning environment motivates self-confidence enabling the students learn new associations.

Operant conditioning on the other hand is behavior acquisition through rewards and punishments for the actions committed. This type of conditioning is sometimes known as instrumental conditioning. Through operant conditioning, the individual usually makes a connection or association between an action or behavior and the rewards or repercussions resulting from the act. The first person to come up with this study is the renowned behaviorist B.F. Skinner. This led to the phenomena being sometimes known as Skinnerian conditioning. The behaviorist proposed that behavioral patterns could not be explained by studying the internal thoughts and motivations. An individual’s behavioral patterns could only be explained by studying the external observable results of the individual’s behavior (David, Michael, Brian, & Emee, 2011).

Skinner defined the term operant to imply an “active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences” (Hergenhahn, 2008). This theory explained how we get to learn the various behavioral patterns we exhibit in different situations. Operant conditioning is used to explain the extra effort individuals put into their work when the stakes are high. Children tend to try to finish their assignments if the parent or teacher promises them a reward. In the corporate sector, projects are finished on time and are done to perfection if individuals are assured of getting salary increments and promotions.

The above illustrations show how individuals improve their behavioral patterns if the rewards are increased. This shows how operant conditioning ends up improving the behavioral activity using the promise of rewards. Operant conditioning can also result in reverse effects; those of bringing about decreased behavioral patterns. This is done by removing the stakes, resulting in a certain negative behavior or action. The rewarding of low marks in a given exam for instance, will result in the students not studying hard for the exam. Decreasing the wages of employees will highly de-motivate them thereby decreasing their output.

Operant conditioning exhibits a couple of key components. These are reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement leads in improvement or the decrease of negative behavior. There exists two types of reinforces. These are positive reinforcers and negative reinforcers. Positive reinforcers are favorable results that are awarded after a certain act, which leads in the improvement of the given behavioral pattern. Positive reinforcers end up creating a motivation for the behavior (Michie, & Abraham, 2004). This is done by setting or raising the rewards or stakes presented to the individuals who act in the preferred manner. Negative reinforcers on the other hand entail the removal of undesirable results of a given action. In this case, the individuals end up getting motivated after the unpleasant repercussions are removed. Both negative and positive reinforcers end up improving the behavioral pattern of the individuals (Michie, & Abraham, 2004).

Punishment involves the inclusion of undesirable results after a given behavior or act, resulting in the demoralization of the individuals, hence the decrease in the behavioral patterns. Punishment presents itself in two aspects, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment involves the incorporation of an undesirable event to weaken the reflex to the given event. Positive punishment is also referred to as punishment by application. Negative punishment on the other hand occurs when a desirable event is eliminated after a given act. In both positive and negative punishments, the behavioral pattern is weakened.

Various events have taken place resulting in the current state of research into behavioral psychology. The earliest known research in the subject is the introduction of the notion of inhibitory responses in the central nervous system in a document published by Ivan Sechenov in 1863. This was followed by a more detailed study by Ivan Pavlov in the 1900’s on various reflexes and responses including the secretion of saliva at the thought of meals. In 1913, John Watson made remarkable headway in the subject when he successfully published an article outlining the different aspects of behaviorism. The article was known as Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it.

In the year 1920, Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted an experiment that included exposing a young child to different stimuli and investigating his responses to the stimuli. The child was exposed to a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, masks and burning newspapers and the relevant responses of the boy to these stimuli were recorded and analyzed. The study showed how classical conditioning could be used to control an emotional reflex to a given stimulus (Ogden, 2007).

Behavioral psychology is a strong subject as it has fewer weaknesses as opposed to other theories on human behavior. The theory depends upon observable aspects of human behavior neglecting all the internal mental states of an individual. This makes it easy for scientists to conduct studies as it entails quantifiable aspects. It also enhances scientific study as data can be easily collected and documented. The theory has led to the successful treatment of maladaptive behavioral patterns. This is made possible through effective therapeutic techniques. Medics have been able to manipulate stimuli and response aspects of individuals as curative techniques to cure certain harmful behaviors and phobias in patients. The theory also explains why individuals and animals are able to adapt to new stimuli and incorporate the new behavior into the reinforced and established behavioral patterns.

The theory has altogether been received rather critically in some circles. Some critics have discredited the theory by stating that the theory is one-dimensional, thus shallow in its study. It has been stated that the theory fails to account for crucial aspects such as free will and internal influences. It is arguable that certain aspects such as moods, thoughts and feelings, which have been used to explain certain behavioral patterns in individuals, are not taken into account. The theory also fails to account for the aspects of learning or tutoring.

In conclusion, behavioral psychology is a theory that explains why individuals react differently to different stimuli. The theory discredits the various excuses presented by individuals on why they do not perform well in various activities. The theory does not regard internal mental and emotional states of an individual such as talents, moods, thoughts and feelings. The theory gives strength to the idea that an individual’s potential is limitless.

 

 

 

References

Cohen, L.M., McChargue, D.E., & Collins, Jr. F.L. (Eds.). (2003). The health psychology handbook: Practical issues for the behavioral medicine specialist. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

David F. M., Michael, M., Brian, E. & Emee V. (2011). Health Psychology. Theory-Research-Practice (3rd Ed.) New York, NY: Sage Publications.

Hergenhahn, B. (2008). An Introduction to the History of Psychology. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Michie, S.; & Abraham, C. (Eds.). (2004). Health psychology in practice. London: BPS Blackwells.

Ogden, J. (2007). Health psychology: A textbook (4th ed.). Berkshire, England: Open University Press.

Quick, J.C., & Tetrick, L.E. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of occupational health psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

 

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Law, Ethics and Corp Governance: Questions 1 and 2 and Case Study

Explain whether Jake’s actions are in or out of “his scope of employment.” 

Jake’s actions are out his scope of employment. Jake seems to be aware of all that entails employee rights and compensation. It is within the legal right that he should be compensated for working overtime. However, Jake is using the fact that he was injured to blackmail Herman into paying him overtime. This is despite the fact that he has just been promoted and he earns a salary in addition to other benefits while the other workers are paid on commission. It seem like he inflicted the injuries on himself as a way of seeking compensation. He took on tasks that he had not been asked to do and he incurred the injuries when carrying out the tasks.

Explain whether or not Herman is responsible for Jake’s injury

Herman is not responsible for Jake’s injury since Jake was out his scope of employment. The only responsibility that Herman had assigned to Jake was changing the oil. Jake on the other hand went ahead and he did more than was required of him, and it is possible that he acquired the injury as he was performing the other tasks. Although he was doing a commendable job with the cars, Herman had not asked him to check the brakes, tires or the transmission. When Herman asked him why he had decided to do that, Jake replied that it was his decision. Jake has worked in the industry for a long time and he is aware of all the dangers involved. He actually knows more than Herman does and he cannot therefore claim that he did not receive any warning concerning the danger of using some of the work tools. On the other hand, Herman has a responsibility of ensuring that the work place environment is safe and in cases of injury, he should know what to do to make sure that the injuries do not get worse (Halbert & Ingulli, 2009).

Explain whether or not Jake should be paid the overtime

Some states such as California require that employees should be paid overtime regardless of whether the hours they have worked are authorized. Although the law requires that employees should be paid overtime, there are a few exemptions. For instance, executives and administrators who earn a salary are not entitled to overtime. Herman points out that Jake has been promoted to a service manager and is part of the rally team and he is therefore not eligible for overtime. Most of the employees who are paid on a salary basis are not usually entitled to overtime. Since Jake is paid on a salary basis, it means that he receives an already determined amount of money each payment period. The US department of Labor provides that drivers, loaders, mechanics and divers assistants are exempt from overtime if they are employed by a motor carrier, or if the duties they perform will affect vehicle safety when transporting passengers or property. Jake is therefore not entitled to overtime because he is a mechanic and he works in a motor carrier.

Explain the rights Jake and Herman have individually in this scenario

Although different states have different laws concerning employee compensation, they do recognize that employers also have rights (Halbert & Ingulli, 2009). Employees are entitled to work injury compensation when they are injured while working. They have a right to work in a risk free environment. Employers should make sure that they provide an environment that is safe for the employees. They should take all the necessary precautions to ensure that the employees are not in danger and in case something harmful happens, then they are well capable of handling it. In this case, Herman does not seem to have provided a risk free environment for Jake to work in, and he does not take any measures to deal with his injuries. There seems to be no mechanism for dealing with work place injuries. Employees have a duty towards their employers in that they are expected to perform their duties accordingly and ensure that things run smoothly at the work place. Herman is annoyed that Jake has added more responsibility on himself and he is not completing the immediate task. Because of this, all other operations are slowed down and this ultimately affects productivity.

1(a) explain what, according to Locke, gives a person their right to property

According to Locke, every man has his own property and no one else is entitled to this property. Locke believes that what a person works for belongs to him; thus, a person has a right to his own self, the earth, and to the fruits of nature. Locke is of the opinion that people gain their own property when they use the provisions of nature. He states, “Whatsoever then he removes out of the state that nature hath provided and left it in, he hath mixed his labor with, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property.”

1(b) Identify any limitation on the right to own property

People do not feel secure owning property since they realize that not everybody practices justice and fairness. Locke believes that anyone can make property by working but only if this does not limit another person from making property. Locke advices that people should not let what they have or own go to waste and if this is done, there will be plenty of land for everybody. Since Locke believes that labor entitles one to property, then so long as a person will work, then he or she will have property. If the person fails to work, it means that he or she will not acquire property. Locke identifies labor in terms of the menial work that people did back then such as fishing and picking fruit. This left no place for those who bought land (Halbert & Ingulli, 2009).

1(c) Discuss why Locke believes people form government

According to Locke, people give the government power to rule. He believes that the formed government should protect people’s property. Since people give the consent to form governments, they can always choose to replace the non-performing governments. Locke believed that there should be an individual with the power to implement the law for the sake of protecting the innocent and making sure that the offenders are restrained. Locke believed that everybody was equal and no one was subject to another and therefore anyone could restrain the one who did wrong.

2.(a) The image of David Lucas that emerges from majority Justice Scalia’s description is strikingly different from the one that Justice Blackman creates in his dissent. Identify the two contrasting stories in this case.

Lucas had bought the property he intended to build and it was therefore his property. The state was however concerned with the fact that it would cause environmental damage and they therefore opposed any building development on the site (Halbert & Ingulli, 2009). Justice Blackman identified Lucas as a businessperson whose role was that of development. He saw him as one who was not concerned with the environment despite hearing all that the development would do to it. Justice Scalia saw Lucas’ idea as an investment opportunity rather than a danger to the environment. He saw Lucas as the victim and he felt strongly that he was to be compensated. He did not seem as concerned concerning environmental issues as justice Scalia was.
2(b) Explain why you think that when Lucas bought the land at issue, in 1986, he did or did not have reason to know that by building on it he would be the owner of a “pig in a parlor.”

The Coastal Zone Management Act was established in the early seventies and it was aimed at protecting the coastal regions. The state passed legislation requiring that anyone who wished to develop in the coastal regions should obtain a permit from the South Carolina Coastal Council. The other developers in the area had already built the family rooms that Lucas intended to build. Lucas was not aware that he had to ask for a permit since the two plots of land were not classified as critical areas.
2(c) Discuss the two types of regulatory action that, according to the majority, automatically triggers compensation as takings, without a court needing to examine the circumstances in a case-specific manner

According to the Fifth Amendment, individuals whose property is taken are entitled to just compensation. One of the regulatory actions that the court identified was that the property owner suffered a physical invasion on his property. According to the court, the extent at which the council had invaded the property was not important, and neither was their reason for invading it. The other regulatory action was that the set regulation denied the owner the chance to utilize the lots economically. The land was valueless and it could not benefit the owner economically. When an individual is not able to make good use of his or her land economically because of the established regulation, the Fifth Amendment is violated.     

references

Halbert, T., & Ingulli, E. (2009). Law & ethics in the business environment: 2010 custom
edition (6th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning

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The Unfair and Unfunded Punishment of the Cigarette Companies by the Government

The issue regarding tobacco use is a very controversial issue, which exhibits mixed reactions among different individuals and communities. Governments have enacted various laws and regulations that range from the complete banning of the making and use of tobacco to the establishment of punitive measures on the cigarette industries. I personally feel that all this ado about the curtailing of tobacco use is irrelevant because it mainly infringes on the freedom rights entitled to companies and individuals in any free and democratic country.

Punishing the cigarette companies for the health effects believed to resultants of cigarette smoking is purely unfair. There have scientific researches that indicate that the nicotine levels in the cigarettes are not enough to cause considerable effects in lung cancer or other tobacco related ailments. Research indicates that nicotine is only harmful to the human body if it consumed in relatively high amounts of close to 40 – 60 mg per kg! These levels are way above the normal consumption limits that are taken by smokers. These are opposed to the levels contained in the regular cigarettes produced by tobacco companies, which are in the levels of 40-60mg. This clearly shows that the cigarette companies are not responsible for the poisoning resulting in nicotine related ailments. It goes ahead to show that punishing the cigarette companies because of the ailments is purely unfair.

The punitive measures established by government on the cigarettes are unconstitutional and should be halted. Private institutions and companies do enjoy several privileges and rights when conducting business activities in capitalistic nations. The constitution discourages the government from interfering with the private sector but instead work with them to ensure a healthy working environment. The government has however, neglected this duty but instead engaged in the frustration of all marketing and distributive efforts by the cigarette companies. This has been based on biased information regarding the harmful effects caused by the consumption of cigarettes (Lader, Henningfield, & Jack, 1985).

As Socrates highlighted, all things are beneficial as long as they are in moderate quantities. Nicotine, just like other aspects of the human diet cannot cause harm to the human body to the human body. Just like junk food, cigarette smoking cannot harm unless it is abused. With regard to this, the government ought not to punish the cigarette companies for the citizen’s inability to control themselves. In just the same way the junk food production is not curtailed, the government ought to devise measures and institutions that will teach that impact the citizens with the relevant skills to regulate their cigarette intake. The government ought to invite the cigarette companies to join in these efforts instead of putting up punitive measures to frustrate cigarette production.

The government has put up punitive measures and restrictions on cigarette companies by curtailing all their advertising efforts. Cigarette companies have been forced to indicate in their products damaging messages. The information indicates to the potential consumer on the harmful effects purported to result from taking the cigarette. Such information shows that cigarette smoking will cause certain ailments based on information that is not entirely true. This should stop because it is utterly unfair for such a practice to contitnue.

The government must refund the cigarette companies all their ill gained profits obtained through unfair price increases. The government ought also to refund the taxpayers on all the funds wasted in unfunded in misinformed information regarding the harmful effects perceived to be caused by cigarette smoking. Giving false information is a very serious offense in every state. as argued above and as evidenced by the scientific researches, the government has done a great disservice to its citizens and the cigarette companies by carrying out advertising efforts based on false information. These efforts have brought about the undesired results of having potential consumers from abstaining from purchasing the products to the fears created. It has also led to the undue stigmatization of the cigarette smokers in the society. This goes ahead to show that the government ought to stop punishing the cigarette companies but instead compensate then and the citizens in general.

The government is being unfair in punishing the cigarette companies for the perceived harmful effects brought about by cigarette smoking. The government is in a biased manner by highlighting only one side and neglecting the numerous benefits brought about by nicotine and cigarette smoking. Reliable scientific research including a research by the Spanish Council for Scientific Research indicates that nicotine and cigarette smoking has numerous health benefits to the human body. This is opposes all the information perpetuated by the government. The research indicates that neural maladies like schizophrenia are treated by the steady and moderate consumption of cigarettes. It also evidenced that persons who smoke are less likely to suffer from ulcerative colitis. The effect is however, truncated when the said person discontinues consuming cigarettes. The government has utterly refused to admit such findings but instead delved on the perceived negative effects of smoking cigarettes (Herraiz, & Chaparro , 2005).

From the above arguments, it is plausible to conclude that the government ought to reverse their punitive measures on the cigarette companies and instead compensate the industry for all the damages realized from its misinformation. The government ought to make a public admittance that it has indeed erred by frustrating the efforts of cigarette production and consumption based on false information and incorrect research. This has been perpetrated through undue increments on cigarette tax, curtailing the cigarette advertising efforts and forcing the tobacco companies to pay for undue damages to persons suffering from cancer and other tobacco related ailments believed to be caused by the consumption of cigarettes.

 

Works cited

 

Herraiz T, Chaparro C. “Human monoamine oxidase is inhibited by tobacco smoke: beta-carboline alkaloids act as potent and reversible inhibitors”. Spanish Council for Scientific Research, CSIC. 2005. Web. 4 August 4, 2011.

Lader, Malcolm Harold; Henningfield, Jack E.; Martin Jarvis. Nicotine, an old-fashioned addiction. London: Burke Publishing, 1985. Print.

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